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199 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Change in DNA sequence |
Mutation |
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Organism that has mutation |
mutant |
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Gene with no mutations |
wild type |
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phenotype |
physical trait |
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genotype |
DNA sequence for trait |
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Genotype effected, not phenotype |
silent mutation |
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Three times of silent mutations? |
-region change (not gene) -new genotype codes for same amino acid -recessive mutation (dipload organisms only) |
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Reason for using bacteria for studying geneitics? |
-Cheap -Simple DNA -Haploid (no recessive genes) |
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Error in replication |
spontaneous replication |
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How often does DNA polymerase make an error? |
Very often, but usually corrects itself. Sometimes it doesn't and those become spontanous mutations (very rare) |
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Enviroment induced mutation |
non-spontaneous mutation |
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What are induced mutations? |
enviroment induced mutations |
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What are examples of non-spontaneous mutations? |
UV, chemicals, ionizing radiation, etc |
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What are examples of induced mutations? |
UV, chemicals, ionizing radiation, etc |
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What does it mean to select for mutants? |
Only allow the growth of certain organisms based on culture's "living" conditions |
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What does it mean to screen for mutants? |
Looking to see if certain bacteria have the phenotype you want to see (or don't have) |
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What is more common screening or selecting for mutants? |
Screening as it is very hard to select for something |
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What is a minimal medium? |
Eerything needed to have growth but the things you are trying to select for |
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What is the purpose of replica plating? |
Allows you to find mutants that you can't select for. Mainly used for auxotrophs |
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How does replica plating work? |
You take a complete medium growth plate (master plate) and you use sterlized vevelteen paper to mark the locations of colonies. Transfer those colonies over to both a minimal plate and a complete plate keeping their locations the same. Let grow. After growth see what colonies did not grow in minimal plate and see location in complete plate and you've found your mutants! |
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Mutants that can't make something needed for them to live |
nutritional mutants |
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What is another name for nutritional mutants? |
auxotrophs |
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What are auxotrophs used for? |
To assess the mutagenicty of a chemical |
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What is the purpose of the Ames test? |
To see the mutagenicity of a chemical |
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Rate that genes change |
Mutation rate |
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Rate of undoing mutation |
reverstion rate |
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What is the mathmatical relationship between mutation rate and reversation rate? |
They are always equal to each other |
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Transfer or transmission of genes from bacteria to non prodige bacteria |
Horizontal Gene transfer |
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What are the three types of Horizontal Gene transfer? |
Transformation, transduction, and conjugation |
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What is transformation transfer? |
Uptake of naked DNA into bacteria cell (EXTREMELY RARE) |
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Transduction |
Bacteriaphage-mediated DNA transfer |
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conjugation |
Bacteria to bacter direct transfer |
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What is the other main type of DNA transfer? |
Virtical transmition |
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Describe DNA degraded transfer |
The use of restriction enzymes to cut new DNA at spesfic spots (spesfic codes). |
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What is another name of restriction enzymes |
restriction endonucleases |
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If a bacteria makes restriction enzymes what will it also make? |
It will make enzymes to protect it's own DNA |
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What is so important about DNA degradation |
It opens the doors to cloning DNA |
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What is orgin of replication? |
New floating DNA has a spot that attracts DNAP to it so that it will replication it as well. It is not always controlled and leads to multiple copies |
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How is new DNA interagrated into host DNA? |
Through the use of plasmids. Plasmid must provide some type of selective advantage though |
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What is a plasmid? |
Small circular peices of DNA replicated indendently of chromosome |
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What is Griffith's transformation experiment and why was it so important? |
Experiment where he took a bacteria cell enveloped and put it in a rat that killed it. Put a non enveloped bacteria cell in teh rate and it lived. Then put the bacteria cell with teh enveloped cell burnt off and it lived. Then put burnt bacteria and living non enveloped bacteria and kill the rat.
Proved theory of transformation. |
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What is generalized transduction? |
Lytic phage mediated DNA transfer. |
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Explain generalized transduction |
When a virion accidentally picks up some of host's DNA. When it becomes lytic and spreads instead of injecting phage DNA it injects host DNA. |
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What is specialized transduction? |
mediated by lysogenic pahges |
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Explain specialized transduction |
When phage clips out of host DNA and accidetnally takes some of it with it. Gets mixed with both phage and host DNA. injects host and phage DNA. Phage DNA is incomplete so it doesn't work though |
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Virus capsule that has host cell DNA in it |
transducing particle |
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Virus capsule that has part phage and part host DNA |
defective pahge |
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What is another name for conjugation? |
mating |
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Describe conjugation |
The transfer of a conjugative plasmid to a bacteria cell that does not have one. Plasmid codes for pilus that connects the two and transfers a copy of that plasmid there resulting in an "F+" bacteria cell |
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What is a conjugative plasmid? |
Plasmid that codes for pilus |
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What is an "F+" bacteria cell? |
A bacteria cell that has a conjugative plasmid in it |
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Explain bacterial species concept |
Not based on reproductive isolation, about DNA simularity |
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What does it take for a bactera cells to be in the same species? |
Their DNA is only a few % points off |
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Beyond species what is there? |
Different strains |
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Naming information of bacteria |
Genus species (underlined or italic, genus capitalized) |
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What would something like "ATCC #" mean? |
It is just ordering info so all scientists are working with that same strain since bacteria mutate so much |
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"Bible" of bacterial systematics. Aids in classification of bacteria |
Bergey's Manual |
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Microbiota |
normal bacteria that lives inside you |
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harmless organisms people purposely put in them to maintain or restore balence |
probiotics |
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Normal bacteria in a person. ratio different from person to person |
Normal flora |
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Locatlized pathogenic bacertia in a host that harms host |
infection |
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Wide spread pathogenic bacteria that harms host |
disease |
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What does systemic mean? |
Wide spread in host |
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Bacteria that gives rise to a disease |
pathogen |
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ability of pathogen to cause diseases |
virulence |
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phenotypes that help bacteria cause diseases |
virulence factors |
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Usually normal flora, but when host resistance goes down will cause disease |
opportunistic pathogens |
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How was AIDS worked out? |
Through the understaning of opportunistic pathogens |
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Tissue that makes up lining and covering inside you (skin) |
epithelial tissue |
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protection that secretes mucus |
mucus membrane |
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Where does bacteria found on skin grow mainly? |
Grows mainly in dermis and subcutaneous tissue layers and sep out in epidermis |
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What are the two types of bacteria found on skin? |
-Staphlococcus epidermidis -Staphlococcus aurus |
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Explain staphlococcus epidermidis |
normal flora |
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Explain staphlococcus aureus |
normal for some. Found in upper parts of respirtory, oppertunistic |
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What do the bacteria found on skin mainly have in common? |
they are halophiles! |
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What are the two types of bacteria found in the oral cavity? |
-Streptococcus mutans -Streptococcus sobrinus |
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Where is the most common places to find bacteria in oral cavity? |
Since everywhere else is mainly mucus covered there are found in teeth and gums (form plaques) |
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What is another name for tooth decay? |
Caries |
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Explain streptococcus mutans |
Most common culprite of caries |
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Explain streptococcus subrinus |
Most common culprite of caries |
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What is dental plaque? |
Biofilm (slippy coat of organisms that aid in attachment) |
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What can be found in gingival crevices? |
lots of anarobes because there are pockets of places without oxygen. Why you gotta floss! |
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What do bacteria found in the stomach have in common? |
They are acidiphiles! (or at least tolerant) |
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What is a type of bacteria found in the stomach? |
Helicobacter pylori |
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Explain Helicobacter pylori |
Most famous for causing gastic ulchers |
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What are prebiotics? |
nutrients need for probiotics |
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What is special about the intestines? |
They are natural chemostats (adds fresh bacteria as well as removing waste at a constant rate) |
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What does entr(o) mean? |
intestines |
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Where can you find entric bacteria? |
in the intestine! |
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What do bacteria in found in the intestines have in common? |
They can tolerate bile salts |
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What is the purpose of bile salts? |
To emulsify fats |
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What are the types of bacteria that can be found in the intestines? |
-Escherichia coli -Clostridium difficlie |
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Explain Escherichia coli |
Normal flora for all, amount varies. Harmless strain |
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Explain Clostrium diffile |
Normal for many, lots of pathogenic patential |
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What is C. diff? |
Clostrium diffile |
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Where is bacteria usually found in the respirtory system and where is it usually not? |
Found in upper parts, not found in sterlize lower parts. |
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What is a 2nd infection |
when the lower parts of the respirtory tract get infected |
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What is the type of bacteria that can found in the respiratory tract? |
Streptococcus pneumoniae |
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Explain streptococcus pneumoniae |
Normal, but can cause deases |
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What parts (if any) of the uriany tract of sterile? |
Upper parts. Bladder and kidney. |
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Where (if any) does the uriany tract get colonized |
In areas right by the skin can get colonized |
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What do you use to qualify virluence? |
LD50 |
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What is LD50? |
Dose # of organisms required to kill 50% of test host organisms |
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What does LD50 stand for? |
Lethal dose- 50 |
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If something is highly virulent what does that mean it's LD50 count is? |
Low |
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If something has a low LD50 count what does that mean about it's virulence? |
It is high |
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What is common factor between organims that are highly virulent? |
They have great adherance |
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What do invaded cells have a problem of getting? |
Iron. There isn't much so they have to compete |
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Small molecules that can take away iron from host cell |
siderophores |
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Are siderophores harmful? |
Nope, but since the bacteria can grow they are secondarly harmful |
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What are host risk factors? |
-Age (very young and very old) -Stress (very general term) -Diet |
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What can be used to take iron? |
-Siderophores -LPS |
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What are compromised risk factors? |
-Smoking -Drugs (any type) -infections -chronic alcohole use -surgery |
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Hospital aquired infections |
nosocomial |
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infections from some sort of treatment |
iatrogenic |
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Natural host resistances in eyes |
Lysozymes in tears to dissolve cell walls |
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Natural host defenses in upper respirtory tract |
Removal of particles in air by cilia in nasopharynx |
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Natural host defenses in throat |
mucus and cilia lining |
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Natural host defences in outer body |
skin |
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Natural host defences in lower respirtory tract |
Mucus and phagocytes in lungs to prevent colonization |
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Natural host defences in stomach |
acidity of pH2 |
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Natual host defences in lower lungs |
blood and lymph protiens |
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Natural host defences in small intestine |
Normal flora and rapid pH change |
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Natural host defences in large intestine |
normal flora |
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Natural host defences in urinary tract |
Flushing out prevents colonization |
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Active gernal defenses against pathogens |
innate immunity |
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active defences against spesific pathogents |
Adaptive immunity |
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eat everything they can |
phagocytes (WBC's) |
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What is the innate immune system mostly? |
phagocytes |
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How do phagocytes know what to eat? |
They recongize PAMPs |
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What are PAMPs? |
Pathogen assocated molecular paterns |
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What are some examples of PAMPs? |
LPS, fleila, pilli, etc |
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Explain how a phagocytes work |
Once they recongize a PAMP they form a compartment around the pathogen and the enymes created from the lysomes go and degrade pathogen |
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Comparment in phagocytes that has pathogen in it |
phagosome |
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makes enyzmes that degrade lipids and such |
lysomes |
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Final step of a phagocyte that kills pathogen |
phagosome-lysome fusion |
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Chucks of bacteria that get displayed on surface of WBC |
Antigen |
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Ag |
Antigen |
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Distict foregin region on molecule |
Antigen |
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Phagocytes are an example of these |
Ag-presenting cells |
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Have stem cells that give rise to RBC's and WBC's |
Bone marror |
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What are the types of phagocytes? |
-Marophages -Neutrophils |
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What are the types of lymphocytes? |
-T-cells -B-cells |
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Phages in key areas (gut and spline) |
marophages |
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What is the main type neutrophils? |
poly-morphonuclear neutrophils (PMN or poly's) |
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Phages that appear when there is an infection |
PMN's or poly's |
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How did PMN's get their name? |
They all have different morphologies |
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What are lymphocytes mainly for? |
adaptive response |
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Have TCR on surface that binds to antigen |
T-Cells |
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What is a TCR |
T-Cell receptor that recongizes an antigen |
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How many different types of T-cells are there? |
There is a T-cell for every single possible antigen (even ones the host hasn't seen yet) |
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How do T-cells not kill the the host's cells? |
They see in context of MHC molecule |
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What is MHC? |
Major Histocompatability complex |
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What is MHC1? |
On almost all human cells (RBCs and sperm do not have) |
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What is MHC2? |
On cells of immune systems |
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Can cells have both MHC1 and MHC2? |
Yes. immune cells do |
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How do T-Cells work in context of cell infected with a virus |
Will see viruses's antigens next to MHC1 and will kill |
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What are the two types of T-cells? |
Tc= Cytotoxic Th= Helper |
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Have TCR that recongize AG in context of MHC1 |
Cytotoxic T-cells |
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Have TCR that recongizes AG in context of MHC2 |
Helper T-cells |
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What do cytotoxic t-cells do to infected cells? |
Kill them and research target lysis cells to kill target cells around it |
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What do helper t-cells do to infected cells? |
Release cytokine to give rise to B-cells |
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What does cytokine do? |
Gives rise to B-cells |
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Generate antibodies |
B-Cells |
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What is another name for Antibodies |
immunoglobulins |
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Abs |
Antibodies |
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Ig |
immunogloblins |
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How are Anti-bodies made? |
Proteins made on B-cell then released |
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Explain antibody antigen bonding sites |
It is shaped like a Y with the base being a constant. The two ends are different and vary from antibody to antibody. They bond to one type of antigen |
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For an antibody to bond with an antigen what is needed? |
-High affinity -High specificity |
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What is affinity? |
How strong the bonding is |
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What is specificity? |
Quality of interaction (bonding) |
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What are the three types of antibodies? |
1. Neutializing antibodies 2. Opsonizing antibodies 3. Complement-fixing antibodies |
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Explain neutializing antibodes |
Reacts with an antigen to preven it's effects (viruses mainly). |
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Give an example of neutializing antibody working |
Binding to toxins to prevent it from getting into cells |
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Explain opsonizing antibodies |
Binds to outside of bacteria cell and attracts phagocytes to it |
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Explain complement-fixing antibodies |
Binds to bacteria cell surface and attracts complement protiens |
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What are complement proteins |
bind to antigen sites and punch holes in bacteria surface killing it |
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How is the attraction done by antibodies brought on? |
Brought on my constante site in antigen site |
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What is natural active immunity |
Natural exposure and natural body response |
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What is natural passive immunity? |
Recieving antibodies naturally (breast feeding or cross placenta) |
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What is artifical active immunity? |
Artifical exposure and body mounts response (flu shot) |
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What is artifical passive immunity |
recieving antibodies in artifical ways (immune transfer) |
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What is immune transfer? |
When you take immune serum from someone who survived whatever the sick person has and give it to them |
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Is immune transfer a good option? |
Nope sub optimal |
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How are airbone pathogens passed on? |
When sneezing and stuff travel in aerosolized capsules |
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Explain streptococcus pyogens |
Can be normal floar for a some/few and causes strep and other junk |
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When a person gets strep why is there throat red? |
Because of hemolysins |
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Why is strep a double edged sword? |
It makes lot of antigens so the body makes a huge immune response which is sometimes what the symptoms stem from |
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What are the illnesses that can be caused from Streptococcus pyogens? |
-Strep -Scarlet fever -Impetigo -Nectrotizing fuscitites -PSGN -Rheumatic fever |
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Explain scarlet fever |
Toxins get in blood stream and produces systemic symtoms |
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Explain impetigo |
In skin. Break in skin and strep gets in. Hemolysins and over immune response produces symtoms. localized. |
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What group is impetigo most common in? |
Children |
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What is another name for nectrotizing fusciitis |
Flesh eating strep |
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Explain nectrotizing fusciitis |
Really bad strain of strep. Can start as other strep infection types. Systemic and life threatening.
Not always visable. Very rare |
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What are the two types of post-streptococcus sequelae? |
-PSGN (Post-streptoccal glomerular nephritis) -Rheumatic fever |
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What does PSGN stand for? |
Post-streptocal glomerular nephritis |
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Explain PSGN |
too many immune complexs (Ag and Abs) clog up capsides (glomeruli) in kidneys |
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Explain Rheumatic fever |
Anti strep antibodies attack host cells. Most common in joints and heart values. |
