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76 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is covalent modification?
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The addition of a phosphate group by a protein kinase to the hydroxyl of serine, threonine, or tyrosine residues.
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What is proteolytic cleavage?
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Inactive enzymes and other proteins (zymogens) are activated by cleavage by a protease.
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Describe association of an enzyme with other polypeptides as a regulatory mechanism.
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Removal of a regulatory subunit results in continuous rapid catalysis by the catalytic subunit, known as constitutive activity.
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What is allosteric regulation?
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The modification of active-site activity through interactions of molecules with other specific sites on the enzyme.
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What is a competitive inhibitor?
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Molecules that compete with substrate for binding at the active site.
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What is a non-competitive inhibitor?
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A molecule that binds at an allosteric site, not at the active site.
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What are the three meanings of "oxidation"?
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1. Attach oxygen (increase # bonds to oxygen)
2. Remove hydrogen 3. Remove electrons |
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What are the three meanings of "reduce"?
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1. Remove oxygen
2. Add hydrogen 3. Add electrons |
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Glycolysis Reaction
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Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD -> @ Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2NADH + 2H2O + 2H
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The enzymes of the Krebs cycle and the pyruvate dehydrogenase cycle are located in the ____________ of the mitochondria.
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Matrix.
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Where are the enzymes of the ETC and ATP synthase/oxidative phosphorylation located in the mitochondria?
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They are bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane.
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How many molecules of ATP are produced after glycolysis and Krebs?
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36 in eukaryotes, 32 in prokaryotes.
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Pyrimidines
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Cytosine and Thymine (Uracil, only in RNA)
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Purines
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Adenine and Guanine
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Oligonucleotide
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A polymer of several nucleotides linked together
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Nucleosomes
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Composed of DNA wrapped around an octomer of histones.
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Transcription
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The process of reading DNA and writing the information as RNA
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Translation
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The production of proteins from RNA
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Where does translation take place?
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In the cytoplasm of the cell.
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Why is the genetic code said to be "degenerate"?
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Two or more codons code for the same amino acid - synonyms.
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What is a point mutation?
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A single base pair substitution ( A in place of G ) 2 kinds:
1. Transitions (purine for purine) 2. Transversions (purine for pyrimidine) |
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Missense mutation
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One amino acid replaces another amino acid
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Nonsense mutations
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A stop codon replaces a regular codon
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Conservative mutations
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This occurs when a missense mutation causes little change in structure/function of the protein
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What is mRNA?
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Messenger RNA. This carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where it can be translated into protein. There are as many different mRNA's as there are proteins.
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What is rRNA?
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Ribosomal RNA. These serve as structural components of the ribosome, along with many polypeptide chains.
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What is tRNA?
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Transfer RNA. This is responsible for translating the genetic code; it carries amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome to be added to a growing protein.
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Where does transcription occur in prokaryotes?
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In the cytoplasm, as prokaryotes have no nucleus.
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What are the 3 stages of transcription?
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Initiation, Elongation, and Termination.
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T/F: DNA replication is semi-conservative
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True
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Polymerization occurs in which direction?
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5' to 3' direction; An existing chain is always lengthened by the addition of a nucleotide to the 3' end of the chain.
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To make DNA, DNA pol requires what two things?
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A template and a primer (primase).
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The enzyme that unwinds the double helix and separates the strands is called ________.
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Helicase
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What are the three components of an operon?
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1. Coding sequence for enzymes
2. Gene encoding for a regulatory protein 3. Upstream regulatory sequences (control sites) |
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What are the two goals of electron transport/oxidative phoshorylation?
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1. reoxidize all the electron carriers reduced in glycolysis, PDC, and the Krebs cycle
2. store energy in the form of ATP in the process |
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What is oxidative phosphorylation?
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The oxidation of high-energy electron carriers NADH and FADH2 coupled to the phosphorylation of ADP to produce ATP.
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What is the glycerol phosphate shuttle?
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It delivers the electrons from glycolysis (in the cytoplasm) directly to ubiquinone in the ETC. (produces only 1.5 molecules ATP per cytosolic NADH)
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DNA is held together wihttp://www.flashcardexchange.com/mycards/add/850501th __________ bonds between bases, in ___________ orientation.
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Hydrogen bonds; anti-parallel.
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What is the pattern of bonding in DNA? (What pairs are always formed)
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A with T, G with C
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What is annealing?
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The binding of two complementary strands of DNA into a double-stranded structure. Also called "hydridization"
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What are topoisomerases?
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Enzymes that cut one or both of the DNA strands as helicase unwinds the strands.
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Describe the lytic cycle of phages.
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1. The bacteriophage binds to bacteria.
2. The phage's enzymes lyse bacterial DNA to create free dNTPs 3. Replication and assembly occurs 4. Lysozyme destroys the bacteria's cell wall to release several hundred viruses |
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Describe the lysogenic cycle of phages.
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1. Bacteriophage binds to a receptor on the bacteria
2. Viral DNA is inserted into bacteria 3. Viral DNA integrates into bacteria's DNA 4. Prophage is replicated with the bacterial DNA during fission 5. Prophage excises itself from bacteria's DNA 6. Replication and assembly occur 7. Lysozyme destroys bacterial cell wall releasing several hundred viruses |
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The bacterial cell wall is composed of ____________.
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Peptidoglycan
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What is a glycocalyx?
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A sticky layer of polysaccharide goo surrounding the bacterial cell and often surrounding an entire colony of bacteria; this layer serves a protection against eradication. This also plays a role in adhesion.
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What is chemotaxis?
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This is when bacterial movement is directed toward attractants (like food) or away from toxins (like acid).
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Define chemoautotroph.
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Bacteria which build organic macromolecules from CO2 using the energy of chemicals. They obtain energy by oxidizing molecules like H2S
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Define chemoheterotroph.
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These require organic molecules such as glucose made by other organisms as their carbon source for energy. (ie. humans)
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Define photoautotroph.
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These use only CO2 as a carbon source and obtain their energy from the sun (ie. plants)
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Define photoheterotroph.
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These get their energy from the sun, like plants, but require an organic molecule made by another organism as their carbon source.
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Define auxotroph.
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These cannot survive on minimal medium because it can't synthesize a molecule it needs to live. Auxotrophy results from a mutation in a gene coding for an enzyme in a synthetic pathway.
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Define obligate anaerobe.
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Bacteria which require oxygen.
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Define facultative anaerobe.
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Bacteria which will use oxygen when it's around, but don't need it to survive.
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Define tolerant anaerobe.
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Bacteria which can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen, but do not use it in their metabolism.
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Define obligate anaerobe.
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Bacteria which are poisoned by oxygen. These commonly infect wounds.
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Define respiration.
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Glucose catabolism with the use of an inorganic electron acceptor such as oxygen.
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Define fermentation.
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Glucose catabolism which does not use an electron acceptor such as O2, instead, a reduced by-product of glucose catabolism such as lactate or ethanol is given off as waste
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Define anaerobic respiration.
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Glucose metabolism with an electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation relying on an external electron acceptor other than O2, such as reducing CO2 to CH4.
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Name the shape associated with coccus bacteria.
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Round-shaped.
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Name the shape associated with bacillus bacteria.
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Rod-shaped.
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Name the shape associated with spirillum bacteria.
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Spiral-shaped.
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Define binary fission.
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Bacteria grows in size until it has synthesized enough genetic cellular components for two cells rather than one, replicates it genome, then divides in two.
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Define germination
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The metabolic reactivation of an endospore.
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Define transduction in bacteria
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The transfer of genomic DNA fro one bacterium to another by a lysogenic phage.
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Define transformation in bacteria
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If pure DNA is added to a bacterial culture, the bacteria internalize the DNA in certain conditions and gain any genetic information in the DNA.
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Define conjugation in bacteria
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Bacteria form a "bridge" to allow for the transfer of genetic information. One cell copies the genetic info and transfers it through the bridge to the other cell. Bacteria with the F factor are said to be male, while bacteria with F+ are female.
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Define Hfr cell
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A cell with the F factor integrated into its genome. (Hfr= High frequency of recombination)
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T/F: Yeast are multicellular fungi.
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F: Yeast are unicellular fungi.
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Fungi have cell walls composed of ________.
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Chitin.
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Yeast are what kind of anaerobes?
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Facultative anaerobes.
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Describe the form of fungal asexual reproduction called "budding"
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A new smaller hyphus (or single cell) grows outward from an existing one.
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Describe the form of fungal asexual reproduction called "fragmentation"
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The mycelium can be broken into small pieces, each which develops into a separate mycelium.
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Describe the form of fungal asexual reproduction called "spore production"
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Mitosis generates many spores from one cell.
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Define haploid
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A cell or species with only one copy of each chromosome.
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Define diploid.
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A cell/species with two copies of each chromosome.
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With respect to the number of copies of chromosomes, adult fungi are said to be __________.
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haploid
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