Logic

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Logic

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How one distinguishes correct from incorrect reasoning.

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Reasoning

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The action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way.

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Arguments

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The product of reasoning (Why a conclusion should be accepted/ What you have to say about it).

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Proposition

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A statement that is either providing a fact or an opinion / Basic building blocks of arguments (_____ are your conclusion and your premises). statement giving proof or opinion

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Premiss

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Proof that helps you come to the conclusion (2 ____ + conclusion).

indicators (P.13): “Since.” “because”, “for”, “As”. Reason one comes up with their conclusion

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Conclusion

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What is trying to be proven/ OR idea you come up with after looking at the premise/ A judgment or decision reached by reasoning.

indicates: (P.12) “Therefore”., “Hence”, “Thus”, “So”, “Consequently”

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Subject

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What is being discussed

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Predicate

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Whatever the subject is doing/ How it is being described

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Quantifier

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How much

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Verb copula

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Is/Are/Was

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Correct reasoning

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If the conclusion makes sense because of the premiss

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Incorrect reasoning

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When its conclusion does not logically follow its premiss(es)

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Deductive reasoning

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The conclusion has to follow the premises

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Inductive reasoning

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The conclusion probably follows the premises. Doesn’t have to

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Correct deduction

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Deductive argument that makes sense/ the conclusion has to happen (valid)

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Incorrect deduction

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It doesn’t make sense/ the conclusion doesn't necessarily happen (conclusion could or couldn’t) (invalid)

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Correct induction

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High probability it will happen

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Incorrect induction

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Low probability it will happen

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Sound

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If it makes sense and its premises are true (Valid)

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Unsound

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It can be correct but facts are not true (Valid or Invalid)

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Soundness rule

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If everything makes sense and your facts (premise) are true then your conclusion is true

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Fallacy and falsity

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two ways that can affect reasoning

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Falsity

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An error in fact (fact that is wrong) (unsound)

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Fallacy

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Reasoning behind your argument doesn’t make sense *thinking*

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Formal fallacy

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Occurs only in deduction *Look in book for definition*

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Informal fallacy

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Works for both induction and deduction

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Fallacies of relevance

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Proof as nothing to do with what is being argued

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Argumentum ad populum (the people):

Bandwagon

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Majority rules

Trying to establish the argument is correct by connecting the majority

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Argumentum ad populum (the people):

Snob

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High class

Trying to establish that the argument is correct by connecting to a small group appeal to them or with them

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Argumentum Ad Misericordiam(feel bad for accordion players) :

Appeal to pity or compassion:

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trying to get people to feel bad (feeling bad for someone else)

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Argumentum Ad Misericordiam(feel bad for accordion players) :

Appeal to emotion (other than pity):

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trying to cause any emotion other than feel bad

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Straw man: Fallacy of misrepresentation (fake version of them)

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Representing someone with something that isn't accurate/ not completely true + has a tiny grain of truth

Putting yourself in a good light by bringing someone else down

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Argumentum Ad hominem (homicide)

Abusive

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Discredit someone by being attacking their character/intelligence (insulting) -

Throwing shade

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Argumentum Ad hominem (homicide)

Circumstantial
(event)

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Bringing up something irrelevant from their past

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Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal to force)

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A threat physically, psychologically or economically

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Ignoratio elenchi (or non sequitur)

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Irrelevant conclusion (missing the point)

Red herring- leaving a clue to throw someone off (irrelevant)

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Fallacies of defective induction:

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May be relevant but the proof is weak. Probably not going to happen

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Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam (superstitions)

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Stating that the opposite hasn’t been proven wrong so yours must be right (Double negative) - anything talking about the opposite

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Argumentum Ad verecundiam (famous people)

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Appeal to the appropriate authority (not their job) appealing to fans

Whose expertise is not logically related to the claim

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Genetic fallacy

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One identifies the present nature of something with its origin or evolution (probably abortion or evolution)

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Genetic fallacy

Forward reasoning

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infers what something is like now from its origin/ basing something on how it started/ because it was like this, it will always be like this

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Genetic fallacy

Backward reasoning:

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looking at something now and stating facts about how it was before/ because its like this now, it was always like this

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False cause

Non causa pro causa (Not the cause for the cause)

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Stating that they cause each other because they happen close together in time, but they don’t have anything to do with each other (eating ice cream and drowning)

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False cause

Fallacy of oversimplification: Necessary condition

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(might not be the problem): if you don’t have it, it won’t work

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False cause

Sufficient condition

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if you have it, it will work

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Slippery slope (wedge) (politicians and fear)

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Connecting two future events by something that could happened based on fear

ex. legalizing weed means that cocaine will be legal and everyone will be a drug addict

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Converse accident, hasty generalization

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One draws a general conclusion from an exceptional case.

Because something in a rare circumstance happens to someone, then it is believed that it is going to happen to everyone

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Fallacies of presumption

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Assuming too much

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Fallacies of presumption : Accident

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What happens to everyone still counts for you, even if you are under crazy circumstances

ex. taking a generalization and applying it to something that it doesnt work for

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Fallacies of presumption :Complex question

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Asking more than one thing at once

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Fallacies of presumption : Simple question

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only one question (atom of a question)

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Petitio principii - begging the question

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Premises and the conclusion are pretty much the same thing (might be rewarded)argument is going in a circle → Circular argument

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Fallacies of ambiguity

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An argument containing ambiguous language (can be interpreted in 1 or more ways)

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Fallacies of ambiguity: Equivocation

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1 word two atleast in different ways (Ex. Wicked)

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Fallacies of ambiguity: Amphiboly

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If you don’t write it correctly, it could mean different things (bad grammar)

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Fallacies of ambiguity: Accent

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Emphasis on the wrong word, so the meaning is different

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Fallacies of ambiguity: Composition

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occur in 2 different contexts

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Fallacies of ambiguity: Composition

Context 1

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argue from the part to the whole

(since there’s a problem with this; it goes w. everything) - specific thing

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Fallacies of ambiguity: Composition Context 2

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from an individual to the group (generalizing a whole group bc. of an issue of one person)

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Fallacies of ambiguity: Division Context 1

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argue from the whole to the part

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Fallacies of ambiguity: Division Context 2

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from the group to the individual (stereotypes)