• Shuffle
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Alphabetize
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Front First
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Both Sides
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Read
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
Reading...
Front

Card Range To Study

through

image

Play button

image

Play button

image

Progress

1/172

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

172 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Evidence in favor of evolution (3):
fossil record,
artificial selection,
phylogenetic simlarities
Fossils show that cetaceans are most closely related to ____.
hippos
_____ between cell walls allow small molecules up to ____ in size to pass between cells without entering the extracellular fluid
gap junctions, 1.5 nm
Gap junctions are regulated by a protein called ___
connexon
Types of indirect signaling (4):
autocrine-sender and receiver are same,
paracrine-receiving cell is near the sender,
hormonal-hormones travel through bloodstream,
synaptic-electrical signals release neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine responds based on cell type:
skeletal muscles-increased contraction,
heart muscles-decreased contraction,
salivary glands-increased saliva
Phosphorylation occurs on the amino acids ___
Ser, Tyr, Thr
Proteins can turn themselves off by ___
hydrolyzing GTP to make GDP
Stages of cell signaling (3)
reception, transduction, response
Signals for ___ receptors can permeate the plasma membrane because they are ___ (3 examples: ___, ___, ___)
cytoplasmic, hydrophobic, cortisol, testosterone, estrogen
___ receptors have extracellular binding domains because their respective ligands are ___ or ___
Transmembrane, large, hydrophilic
Thousands of different ___ are known, which have ___ transmembrane segment(s) on the receptor and ___ subunits on the protein
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), seven, three
Activated G proteins turn ___ to ___, before breaking apart and releasing __.
GDP, GTP, GDP
The second major class of transmembrane receptors ___ have ___[number] transmembrane segment(s)
Receptor protein-tyrosine kinase (RTK), one
Ligand binding to RTKs cause ___, which results in ___
dimerization, auto-phosphorylation on the tyrosine residues
Two types of ligand-binding dimerization:
ligand-mediated (single molecule draws monomers together),
receptor-mediated (two molecules draw monomers together)
Types of transmembrane receptors (3):
GPCRs, Enzyme-linked receptors, ion channel receptors
An important second messenger in transduction is ___, which is created by ___ and cleaved back by ___
cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP),
adenylate cyclase,
cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase
G proteins are attached to the membrane by ___
lipid tethers
___ discovered cAMP by treating ___ with ___, causing them to ___
Sutherland, liver cells, epinephrine, break glycogen into glucose
Sutherland's experiment only worked when he ___, but if he added ___ to ___, it also sometimes worked
used E+P+S, fractions of E + P, S
Even in the absence of___, a little cAMP is always made due to ___
adenylyl cyclase, equilbrium
Drinking caffeine increases __ levels in the blood
glucose
Ca++ pumps into the __, ___, and ___
extracellular fluid, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria
Ca++ often acts through ___ or ____
Protein kinase C (PKC), calmodulin (CaM)
Calmodulin binds ___ and undergoes a conformation change.
4 Ca++ ions
Ca++ can cause a cascade called ___, releasing them from the ___, or the ___ in muscle cells, along with releasing
calcium induced calcium release (CICR),
endoplasmic reticiulum,
sarcoplasmic reticulum,
ryanodine receptors (RyRs)
Ca++ travels through the __
gap junctions between cells
In plants, ___ are opened by ___ to allow ___ in and ___ out
Stomata, guard cells, CO2, water
The vacuole contains water to maintain ___, along with lots of ___ ions
turgor pressure, Ca++
With low turgor pressure, the guard cells ___ and with high pressure, they ___
close, open
___ is mutated in about 30% of cancers, preventing ___, which leads to ____
Ras, hydrolysis of GTP to GDP, continuous cell division
Viagra inhibits ___, which changes ___ to ___
cGMP phosphodiesterase, cGMP, GMP
___ and ___ can change how different cells respond to signals
divergence, crosstalk
G-proteins can ____ to deactivate themselves
spontaneously hydrolyze GTP to GDP
The chemical ___ patrols the inside of cells to find ___ and then ___ them
GRK, bound ligands, phosphorylates
GTP is converted to cGMP by ___, which becomes GMP through the kinase ___
guanylyl cyclase, cGMP phosphodiesterase
Proteins are converted to Protein-P by ___, and back to proteins by ___
kinases, phosphatases
Termination of Ca++ signals results in __, even though the cell is always ___
reuptake, pumping out calcium
Cholera toxin modifies a ___, continuously activating ___, leading to high amounts of ___, causing secretion of ___, with ___ following them
G-protein, adenylyl cyclase, cAMP, ions, water
Pheromones:
chemicals released into the air that affect smell
Examples of pheromones (3)
synchronization of menstruation,
dogs marking territory,
mate attraction in arthropods
Two types of locally transmitted hormones
autocrine: affects self,
paracrine: affects others
The simple endocrine pathway goes ___
stimulus to endocrine cells to target effectors
The simple neuroendocrine pathway goes ___
stimulus to hypothalamus/pituitary to target effectors
The hormone cascade pathway goes ___
stimulus to hypothalamus to endocrine cells to target effectors
The ___ is also called the master gland.
pituitary gland
The posterior pituitary acts through a ___ pathway
neuroendocrine
ADH is __
antidieuretic hormone for water resorption in the kidneys
Oxytocin is ___
used for releasing milk and stimulating labor contractions
An increase in blood concentration of ions (___) triggers release of ____ from the ___
osmolarity, ADH, hypothalamus
Alcohol prevents release of ___, resulting in ___, which causes ___
ADH, non-resorption of water, hangovers
The ___ is controlled almost entirely by the hypothalamus
anterior pituitary
The ___ synthesizes lots of hormones, which can act either by a ___ or ___ manner
anterior pituitary, non-tropic (acts on other endocrine systems),
The ___ pituitary is directly connected to the hypothalamus, while the ___ is only connected to the portal blood vessels
posterior, anterior
___ is a hormone that stimulates milk production and endocrine production of the testes
prolactin
___ are hormones that dull the perception of pain
endorphins
Growth hormone is tropic/non-tropic, and overexpression leads to ___ while underexpression is ___
both, gigantism, pituitary dwarfism
Overproduction of growth hormone in adulthood leads to ___
acromegaly
The hypothalamus produces ___, which stimulates production of ___ from the ____, which stimulates production of ____ from the thyroid
TRH, TSH, anterior hypothalamus, thyroxine, thyroid
The hormone____ stimulates the metabolic rate and can be triggered by ____
thyroxine, cold
There are two forms of thyroxine, ___ and ___, with the thyroid producing mostly ___, which is the active/inactive form,
T3, T4, T4, inactive form
Iodine deficiency leads to ___, which cannot turn off the production of ____, causing the thyroid to overwork itself, leading to ___
production of inactive thyroxine, TRH by negative feedback, goiter
In the disorder ____, lack of thyroxine can cause ____
hypothroidism, cretinism
Goiter can also be caused by ___
negative feedback mechanisms failing even in high concentrations of thyroxine
Hyperthyroidism can be caused by ____, in which ___
Grave's disease, an antibody to the TSH receptor is produced that activates the secretion of thyroxine
The ____ of the adrenal glands produces ____ and is controlled directly by the ___
medulla, epinephrine, norepinenphrine, nervous system
The ___ of the adrenal glands produces ___, and is controlled by hormones, mainly ____ from the ____
cortex, cortisol, ACTH, anterior pituitary
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are ____ that are triggered by ___
catecholamines, tyrosine
Epinephrine and norepinephrine bind to two types of ___, with norepinehprine binding mostly to ___, while epinephrine binds to ___
GPCRs, alpha adrenergic, both
Beta blockers like ___ are used to decrease responses to ___ by ___
propanolol, epinephrine, preventing the activation of adenylyl cyclase
Adrenal cortex cells use ___ to produce ____, which ___
cholesetrol, cortisol, mediates response to stress
Stress initiates release of ___ from the hypothalamus, stimulating ___ from the ____, stimulating release of ____ from the ____
CRH, ACTH, anterior pituitary, cortisol, adrenal cortex
Cortisol causes ___
unimportant cells to decrease glucose consumption, lower inflammation, and suppression of the immune system
The gonads produce ___, like ___ for males and ___ for females
steroids, androgens, progesterone
The hypothalamus secretes ___, which causes secretion of ____ from the anterior pituitary, which causes secretion of steroids from the gonads
GnRH, LH and FSH
____ occurs when the body has ___ chromosomes, causing both male and female traits
Kleinfelter's syndrome, XXY
In the pancreas, alpha cells secrete ___ and beta cells ___
glucagon, insulin
Insulin directs cells to convert _____ to ____, while glucagon directs them to ___
glucose, glycogen, release glucose
Type I diabetes is caused by a lack of ___, while Type 2 is caused by a lack of ___
insulin, receptors for insulin
____ is produced by the ___ and helps regulate rhythm of sleep
melatonin, pineal gland
Meiosis starts with a ___ cell and ends with four ___ cells
tetraploid, haploid
Spermatogenesis results in ___ sperm per original ____
4, germ cell
Sperm motility is low under ___ conditions, but ____ conditions activates them
acidic, basic or neutral
Spermatogenesis takes place in the ___ by ____, which also produce ____
seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells, inhibin
Testosterone is produced by ____
Leydig cells
___ forms over the head of the sperm, containing enzymes to digest the egg
An acrosome cap
Sperm are stored in the ___ after production
epididymis
Semen is composed of:
___
2/3rd of the volume is produced by the ____
____ produced by the ____
____ produced by the ____
sperm;
seminal vesicles;
white fluid, prostate;
neutralizing solution, bulbourethral glands
Puberty increases output of ___ by the hypothalamus, but ___ produced by the ___ exerts negative feedback
GnRH, inhibin, Sertoli cells
Mammalian strategies of oogenesis (3):
intercourse directly stimulates
estrus
menstrual cycle
During embryogenesis, the oocyte enters ___ of the first meiotic division, and its development is arrested until ___
prophase, puberty
The hormones ___ and ____ stimulate follicles to grow and complete ____ until the phase ____, while fertilization stimulates ____
LH, FSH, Meiosis I, metaphase II, Meiosis II
____ occurs when the ___ fail to sweep the egg out of the ovaries
ectopic pregnancies, Fallopian tubes
The ____ attaches to the wall of the uterus, which is called the ____
blastocyst, endometrium
The ___ cycle involves the building up of the endometrium, which starts ____ days into the menstrual cycle
uterine, 5
___ days after ovulation, the uterus is maximal and stays that way for ___ days
5, 9
In the ovarian cycle, ___ follicles mature each month, but only one continues to grow, for the purpose of ___
6-12, supplying the egg with nutrients
After two weeks in the ovarian cycle, ___ occurs, and the ____ ruptures, emitting the egg
ovulation, follicle
After ovulation, the follicle forms the ___, which produces __
corpus luteum, estrogen, progesterone
On day __ of the ovarian cycle, ___ starts to exert positive rather than negative feedback on the ____, causing a surge of ___ that ruptures the __
12, estrogen, pituitary, LH and FSH, follicle
If fertilization occurs, the ___ begins to secrete ___, which maintains the ___, which maintains the ___, allowing for pregnancy tests
blastocyst, hCG, corpus luteum, endometrium
During pregnancy, high levels of ___ prevent the secretion of ____, which is what birth control pills use
progesterone and estrogen, FSH/LH
___, the birth control hormone, binds to the site where ____ does, but without stimulating it
RU-486, progesterone
Drawbacks of external fertilization (6)
environmental pollution.
can't always choose one's mate.
sperm has to find eggs.
lots of sperm that compete.
many similar species surrounding.
polyspermy
Problems with polyspermy
too many chromosomes (Down's syndrome).
messes up early cell divisions
__ are model organisms for understanding fertilization
sea urchins
For sea urchins, species-specific ____ on the ___ process of sperm interact with the ___ on the eggs
bindin, acrosomal process, vitellin envelope
In sea urchins, the fast block to polyspermy is ____
an influx of Na+ ions that depolarizes the membrane and prevent other sperm from entering
In sea urchins, the slow block to polyspermy is ____, which stimulates fusion of ____ with ____
release of Ca++ ions through CICR, cortical granules, plasma membrane
In sea urchins, fusion of ___ with the plasma membrane causes the ___ to rise and form a ____
cortical granules, vitelline envelope, fertilization envelope
Mammalian eggs are surrounded by a ___, under which is a ____, which has species specific ___
cumulus, zona pellucida, glycoproteins
Steps of fertilization in mammals (5)
1. Sperm binds to receptors on zona
2. Acrosome digests a hole in the zona
3. Sperm and egg merge plasma membranes
4. Sperm nucleus enters egg
5. Enzymes raise and harden the zona
Old theories of development
preformation: sperm contains a homunculus
epigenesis: Aristotle thought animals emerge from a formless mass
Determination:
Differentiation:
Morphogenesis:
irreversible commitment to differentiation,
expression of developmental commitment,
shaping of multicellular organs
Transplanting neural ectoderm into an early gastrula results in ___, while transplanting it into a late gastrula results in ___
nothing different, a second neural plate
Signals from other cells commit a cell to become skeletal muscle by activating ___, which stimulates production of ___ and blocks ____, leading to multinucleated cells
myoD, myosin, cell division
___ says that determination is caused by different developmental determinants in cells divided by mitosis
Weismann's hypothesis
___ did experiments on frogs to show that ___ nuclei are ____, and prolonged exposure to an egg environment can revert them to egg-like cells
Gurdon, somatic, totipotent
____ cloned sheep by arresting them in the ___ phase and fusing them with eggs from another sheep
Wilmut et al, G1
Differentiation in plant cells are more/less easily reversed than in animal cells; carrots can form a mass of cells called a ___ that is completely ___
more, callus, totipotent
___ are undifferentiated cells found in adults, but can only divide into some types of cells, so they are called ___
stem cells, pluripotent
Stem cells from the ___ of the embryo do not have a developmental identity yet
inner cell mass
___ can lead to tremor, weakness, and a blank face, and it is caused by ___ in a region called the ____
Parkinson's disease, degeneration of dopamine-containing neurons, substantia nigra
A procedure called ___ involves fusing a cell nucleus with an egg cell to avoid immune rejection
therapeutic cloning
Implanting stem cells can cure ___ and ___
Parkinson's, blindness
___ is communication between cells that leads to different cell types, either through ____ or ____
induction, diffusion, cell-to-cell contact
_____ is when cells commit suicide (___), like in the case of the webbing between the fingers
programmed cell death, apoptosis
In Drosophila, there is unequal distribution of ___ like ___, which controls the anterior development, and ____, which controls the posterior
morphogens, bicoid, nanos
Determination of the embryonic axes is based on the mother/father
mother
Morphogens induce 3 types of segmentation genes:
gap genes,
pair rule genes,
segment polarity genes
___ genes define the role of each segment
homeotic
____ mutation of the homeotic genes can result in two pairs of wings for fruit flies, while ____ can result in legs growing out of the eyes
bithorax, antennapedia
Altered homeotic genes in mice can cause ____ to become ___
lumbar vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae
Fruit flies have a ___ bp long gene called a ____, which codes for a ____ amino acid long protein called a ____, which is similar in many organisms
180, homeobox, 60, homeodomain
____ families of ___ genes, which consist of ____ genes that reside on different chromosomes, control body differentiation in mice
4, homeobox, 10
Darwin concluded that ___ and ___ are related because they have similar larvae
barnacles, brine shrimp
___ is retention of juvenile characteristics in the adult
neoteny
Humans may be ____ to chimpanzees, because juveniles are similar in that they ____ and ____
neotonous, have similar head shapes, walk bipedally
Echinoderm stages of development (6)
zygote,
eight cells,
blastula,
gastrula,
pluteus larva,
adult
A bilateral body plan is realized in frogs by the creation of the ____ opposite the point of sperm entry when the ___ rotates
gray crescent, cortical cytoplasm
Frog egg cells are split into two hemispheres, the ____, where the sperm always enters, and the ____
animal, vegetal
Fertilization of frog eggs activates ___, which phosphorylates ____, allowing it to be degraded, although it is inhibited in the ___ pole
GSK-3, beta-catenin, vegetal
In frog eggs, after fertilization, the inhibitor of ____ moves to the gray crescent, where it prevents degradation of ____, so the concentration is higher on the ___ side
GSK-3, beta-catenin, dorsal
The distribution of ___ in the gray crescent is maintained with mitotic division, and it turns on genes in the ___ part for differentiation
beta-catenin, dorsal
Too little beta-catenin results in ___, while too much in one region results in ____
no gastrulation, a second axis of embryo formation
Beta-catenin is called the ____, which turns on gene expression like the transcriptional factors ____
primary embryonic organizer, Goosecoid, Siamois
Complete cleavage:
Incomplete cleavage:
holoblastic, meroblastic
___ is when cells coalesce into a denser mass of more cells
compaction
Blastomeres can separate early, either with ____ or ____, both of which result in identical twins
2 cell embryos splitting, the inner cell mass splitting
Ectoderm becomes ____
nervous system, skin
Mesoderm becomes ____
skeleton, gonads, muscles, circulatory system, kidneys
Endoderm becomes ___
gut, respiratory tract, liver, pancreas, thyroid, bladder, germ cells
The blastopore is the opening that later becomes the ___ in vertebrates; the hole is called the ____
anus, blastocoel
The first cells to enter the blastopore are called the ___, and they form the ___
archenteron, primitive gut
____ showed that the gray crescent is necessary for ____
Spemann, gastrulation
In birds and reptiles, cleavage forms a ___ on the yolk, and gastrulation begins when cells move towards it, forming a ____
blastodisc, primitive streak
The blastodisc is composed of a ____, which forms the ___, and a ___, which forms the ____
epiblast, embryo, hypoblast, extraembryonic membrane
At the forward region of the primitive streak is ____, which ____
Hensen's node, where cell movements are initiated
____ is the process by which the ____ thickens above the notochord to create the ___
neurulation, ectoderm, neural plate
Neurulation in frogs involves ____ and ____
spine bifida, folic acid
Segmentation occurs during ____, when blocks of mesoderm called ____ form on both sides
neurulation, somites
____ are model systems for development in vertebrates
zebrafish
____ is the development of certain tissues according to proximity to others, like in eyes, when the ____ induces the surface tissue to form a ____, which induces the surface tissue to form the _____
induction, optic vesicle, lens, cornea
___ is a model organism for development, because all ___ cells have been traced
C. elegans, 959 somatic
In nematodes, a ___ secretes a factor called ____, which induces neighboring cells to become ____
anchor cell, LIN-3, vulva
___ originate from the germ layers of the embryo, and they function in exchange of materails
extraembryonic membranes
In chickens, a ____ is formed that secretes fluid for shielding the embryo
amnion
In humans, after attachment, the ____ separates from the ____ of the blastocyst to form the ____
inner cell mass, trophoblast, amniotic cavity
The ____, or the cells at the bottom of the placenta, extends to form the ____, which produces the ____, which has the job of ___
hypoblast, chorion, placenta, producing estrogen and progesterone after the corpus luteum
___ was the process by which cells from the amniotic fluid were tested, but a newer technique called ___ allows it to be done earlier
amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling
The neural tube in humans swells into ___ parts that form the ____
3, brain