Jhunmark

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is based on the geometric phenomenon of triangulation.

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GPS

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the ground segment of GPS (US) has one master control, one alternative master control station, 12 command and control antennas and 16 monitoring site

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Control segment

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Working GPS Consist of two main components

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Reciever

Location

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collects satellite signals, and decodes and processes them.

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Reciever

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once the GPS receiver has located its position it is usually displayed in of two common format

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Location

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are angles both use the center of the earth as the vertex, but they use a different zero reference.

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Latitudes and Longitudes

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The world is divided into 60 zones of latitude, each 6' wide at the equator, that extend from 84' N to 80' s

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UTM zone

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the more spread out the satellites are in the sky, the better the satellite geometry

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DOP

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Advantage of GPS

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Easy to navigate

Search for nearby area

Weather information

Tracking

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implies that the location of the data items are known, or can be calculated, in terms of geographic coordinates (Latitude, Longitude)

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Geographic

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implies that the data in a GIS are organized to yield useful knowledge, often as colored map images, but also as statistical graphics, tables, and various on-screen responses to interactive queries.

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Information

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implies that a GIS is made up from several inter-related and linked components with different functions. GIS have functional capabilities for data input, manipulation.

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System

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a system of earth-orbiting satellites which can provide precise (100 m- sub-cm)

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GPS

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Use of Satellites or aircraft to capture information about the earths surface

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RS

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Software Systems with capabilities for input, storage, manipulation/analysis and output/display of geographic (spatial) information

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GIS

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Angles and Directions maybe defined by means of the following;

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Bearings

Deflections angles

Azimuths

Angles to the right

Interior angles

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Types of meridian

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Assumed meridian

True meridian

Magnetic meridian

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a fixed line of reference which may be any line in the survey or it may be purely imaginary.

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Meridian

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one which is arbitrarily chosen.

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Assumed meridian

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a true north – and – south line passing through the geographical poles of the earth.

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True meridian

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one which lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the earth as indicated by the magnetic needle.

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Magnetic meridian

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is the direction of any line with respect to a given meridian.

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Bearing

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Types of Bearing According to their corresponding line

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True or astronomic bearing

Magnetic bearing

Assumed bearing

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reckoned from the true meridian

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True or astronomic bearing

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reckoned from the magnetic meridian.

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Magnetic bearing

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reckoned from some arbitrary line of reference.

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Assumed bearing

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of a line is its direction given by the angle between the meridian and a line measured in a clockwise direction usually from the north branch of the meridian.

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Azimuth

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are customarily reckoned from the true south. In surveying, azimuths are reckoned from the north.

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Azimuth

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Types of Azimuth According to their line of References

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Assumed azimuth

True azimuth

Magnetic azimuth

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reckoned from any arbitrarily chosen line of reference.

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Assumed azimuth

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reckoned from the true south or true north.

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True azimuth

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reckoned from the magnetic north or magnetic south

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Magnetic azimuth

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is the angle between a succeeding line and the prolongation of the preceding line.

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Deflection angle

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In closed polygon, the angles inside two adjacent sides or lines are called

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Interior angle

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The angle between the true meridian and the magnetic meridian is called the

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Magnetic declination

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the north end of the compass needle points to the east of the true meridian.

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East magnetic declination

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the north end of the compass needle points to the west of the true

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West Magnetic declination

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Magnetic declination changes more or less systematically in cycles over period of approx. 300 years, one year or even one day.

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Variation in magnetic declination

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Types of variation

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Secular variation

Annual variation

Daily variation

Irregular variation

Local attraction

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the magnetic meridian swings in one direction for a century.

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Secular variation

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small annual ring; swing of the magnetic needle in a period of one year.

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Annual variation

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solar di-urnal variation; periodic swing of the magnetic needle in a period of one year.

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Daily variation

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due to magnetic disturbances because of sunspots. They cannot be predicted but are most likely to occur during magnetic storms.

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Irregular variation

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the deviation of the compass needle from the magnetic meridian caused by the presence of objects of iron or steel or some kinds of iron ore. Also called local disturbance.

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Local attractions

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It is a vast of land dominated by trees. A biological community consisting a plant (flora) and animals (fauna) living symbiotically on the same site. Is a land with an area of more than 0.5 hectare.

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Forest

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art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between terrestrial points, angles between lines, and of determining the direction of lines and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.

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Surveying

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is the application of science and maths to solve problems. While scientists and inventors come up with innovations, it is engineers who apply these discoveries to the real world.

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Engineering

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is the application of scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge in order to invent, design, build, maintain, and improve structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes concerning to Forest.

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Forest surveying and engineering

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Two General Types of Surveying

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Plain surveying

Geodetic surveying

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Type of surveying that considered the earth as a plane and not a spheroid.

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Plane surveying

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takes into account the spheroidal surface of the earth.

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Geodetic surveying

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Importance of Surveying

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Land Classification

Road Location

Location of nurseries, sawmills, spar trees, cable ways

Planting surveys for planting plan

Location of dam sites, irrigation canals

Determination of the place of fire in plantations

Settling boundary conflicts.

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Kinds of Surveying (Operations of Surveying)

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Land survey

Topographic survey

Route survey

Mine survey

Cadastral survey

City survey

Photogrammetric survey

Hydrographic survey

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Use of the Bureau of Lands, Relocation Surveys.

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Land surveys

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securing of data necessary for the preparation of topographic maps. Determining elevation of points.

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Topographic survey

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for the location of transportation and communication lines.

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Route survey

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for mineral explorations.

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Mine survey

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to determine the extent, value, ownership, and transfer of lands for urban and rural areas.

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Cadastral survey

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in and near a city for purposes of planning city improvements.

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City survey

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application to surveying of the science of measurement by means of photographs.

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Photogrammetric survey

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survey of bodies of water for purposes of navigation, water supply or subaqueous construction.

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Hydrographic survey

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Principles Involved in Surveying

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Geometry

Physics

Adjustments of errors

Trigonometry

Astronomy

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Measurements are Inexact Even with the most sophisticated equipment, a measurement is only an estimate of the true size of a quantity . Exactness simply does not exist in the physical world.

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Errors in measurement

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Types of measurement

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Direct measurement

Indirect measurement

Error measurement

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Measurements made first-hand using some type of measuring device or instrument in a direct manner

Measurements made using an observable proportion or ratio

Defined as the difference between a measured value and the true value Mistakes are not errors. They are also called blunders

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Direct measurements

Indirect measurement

Error measurement

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Error source

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Natural errors

Instrument errors

Personal erros

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Errors caused by some variability in natural conditions such as temperature - Stretch in a steel tape, Pressure - measurements in a total station, wind-holding a level rod straight, magnetic declination - variation in a compass

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Natural errors

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Errors caused by imperfections in the manufacture of an instrument.

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Instrument errors

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The error caused by the inability to line up crosshairs exactly on a measurement point or sight exactly on a line.

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Personal error

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two types of errors related to measurements:

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Systematic error

Random errors

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Also called bias. Errors that are constant and also are cumulative.

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Systematic error

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These errors follow a natural distribution and tend to be offsetting.

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Random errors

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(the lack of systematic mistakes) is how close a measurement or observation is to the true value.

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Accuracy

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has two connotations. One is how many decimals of precision exist. Thus, a measurement of 8.4079 ft is said to be more precise than 8.4 ft.

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Precision

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Measurements of dimention

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Horizontal length

Vertical length

Horizontal angle

Vertical angle

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is the straight line distance measured in a horizontal plane. In most cases horizontal distance is calculated from a distance measured on a slope.

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Horizontal length

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is a measurement of a difference in height or elevation. Direct measurements can be made by an altimeter, which indicates barometric pressure or by a plumb line and tape for short vertical distances

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Vertical length

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A horizontal angle is the difference in direction betwe 1) two intersecting lines in a horizontal plane; (2) two intersecting vertical planes; or (3) two intersecting lines of sight to points in different vertical planes.

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Horizontal angle

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is the difference in direction between a horizontal plane and an intersecting line, plane, or a line of sight to a point. It is measured in the vertical plane in degrees of arc. Measurements are referenced "up" or "down" from the horizontal as "plus angles" or "minus angles"

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Vertical angle

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Rough measurement of horizontal distance, although it is a rapid means of approximating distances.

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Pacing

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length of step in walking, maybe measured from toe to toe or heel to heel.

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PACE

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equivalent to two or double step.

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Stride

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As the ratio of the measured distance in the number of paces made by an individual to cover the measured distance.

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Pace factor

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is also known as plane distance and is either measured directly with the measuring tape held so that the slope is zero or is calculated from the slope distance.

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Horizontal distance

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is the length of slope from the bottom to the top of the slope and is larger than both the vertical and horizontal distance. Slope distance can be calculated when the vertical height (rise)

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Slope distance

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It is often the case that a long horizontal distance will have a number of slope angle changes.

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Breaking chain

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At this point, it is a good time to talk about field book notation with regard to decimals.

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Field book notation

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device that shows the cardinal directions used for navigation and geographic orientation. It commonly consists of a magnetized needle or other element, such as a compass card or compass rose.

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Compass