Intro To Psychology: Chapter 16 (Myers 8Th Edition)

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ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

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a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of the three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

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WHAT WAS PHILIPPE PINEL FAMOUS FOR?

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reformer against brutal treatment, who insisted that that madness was not demon possession but a sickness of the mind caused by severe stresses and inhumane conditions

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THE MEDICAL MODEL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

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the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated and, in most cases, cured. it assumes that these mental illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy.

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THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH

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psychologists today contend that all behaviour, whether normal or disordered, arises from the interaction of nature (genetic and physiological factors) and nurture (past and present experiences)

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DSM-IV-TR

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the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition), a system for classifying psychological disorders. Presently updated “text revision"
The DSM describes 16 clinical syndromes

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DSM CRITICISM

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- it labels people and this can cause people to view them differently
- in (Rosenhan 1973) 8 people went to a mental hospital complaining of a thud, and even though they were perfectly normal, the doctors could not detect that they were frauds.
- In (Langer, 1974) it was shown that just giving someone a label, even without witnessing any ‘crazy acts’ they were judged as “different from most”
- labels can serve as self-fulfilling prophecies

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WHAT IS THE 'Un-DSM' (A DIAGNISTIC MANUAL OF HUMAN STRENGTHS)

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A companion to the DSM, a book created to classify human strengths (Peterson, Seligman 2004)
- These strengths include: Justice, Courage, Love, Justice,Temperance & Transcendence

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ANXIETY DISORDER

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Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviours that reduce anxiety.

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WHAT ARE THE 4 TYPES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS?

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1. Generalized anxiety disorder, in which a person is unexplainably and continually tense and uneasy
2. Panic disorders, in which a person experiences sudden episodes of intense dread.
3. Phobias, in which a person feels irrationally and intensely afraid of a specific object or situation
4. Obsessive-compulsive disorder, in which a person is troubled by repetitive thoughts or actions

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GENERALISED ANXIETY DISORDER

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An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.
- 2/3rds with this are women

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PANIC DISORDER

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an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, chocking, or other frightening sensations.
- people with panic disorder may begin to fear having a panic attack
- Agoraphobia is fear or avoidance of situation in which escape might be difficult or help unavailable when panic strikes

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AGORAPHOBIA

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Related to panic disorder it is the fear or avoidance of situation in which escape might be difficult or help unavailable when panic strikes

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PHOBIA

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An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation.
- an irrational fear that disrupts behaviour
- some phobias can lead to incapacitating efforts to avoid the feared situation
- social phobia is shyness taken to an extreme
- common phobias are animals, heights, blood, flying, close spaces, water, storms, being alone

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OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD)

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An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)
- it becomes a problem when it interferes with our everyday life
- checking to see if the door is locked is normal – checking it 10 times is not.
- 2-3% of people in late teens/ early twenties cross this line and become preoccupied with compulsive rituals so time consuming, that effective functioning becomes impossible

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POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)

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An anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.
- a sensitive limbic system flooding the body with stress hormones also increases vulnerability
- PTSD rates vary from 4% among those who have experienced natural disaster, to up to 50% among those who have been kidnapped, held captive, tortured or raped
- The greater one’s emotional distress during a trauma, the higher the risk of post-traumatic symptoms
- Some believe that PTSD is over diagnosed, due to a broadening definition of trauma (originally meant direct exposure to serious threat, e.g. combat/rape)
- revisiting trauma right after the experience & venting emotions has actually proven ineffective and sometimes harmful.

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ANXIETY - THE LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

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A. Fear Conditioning
- 2 specific learning process that may contribute
- 1. Stimulus generalization
- 2. reinforcement
B. Observational Learning
- fear may be learnt through observing others’ fears

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STIMULUS GENERALIZATION (IN CONNECTION TO ANXIETY)

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Stimulus generalization occurs, for example, when a person fears heights after a fall and later develops a fear of flying airplanes without even having ever flown

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ANXIETY - THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

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Explains why we learn some fears more readily and why some individual are more vulnerable.

Natural Selection: evolution may have prepared us for fear of heights, but not for bombs dropping

Genes: some people seem genetically predisposed to particular fears and high anxiety
- Pair a traumatic event with high strung temperament and the result may be a phobia
- identical twin often appear to develop similar phobias, even when raised separately

The Brain: Generalized anxiety, panic attacks, and even obsessions & compulsions are biologically measurable as an over arousal of brain areas involved in impulse control and habitual behaviours.
- the anterior cingulated cortex, a brain region that monitors our actions and checks for errors, seems especially likely to be hyperactive in those with OCD
- Fear-learning experiences can create fear circuit activity and its associated OCD behaviours.

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DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER

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Disorders were conscious awareness becomes separated from memories, thoughts, & feelings.
- a person may experience a sudden loss of memory or change in identity
- only when these experiences are severe and prolonged do they suggest a dissociative disorder

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DISSOCIATED IDENTITY DISORDER (DID)

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A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. AKA multiple personality disorder.
- the self & consciousness in massive dissociation
- the original denies any awareness of the other personalities
- perhaps a manufacture of American society. It does not seem to appear anywhere else in the world.

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MOOD DISORDERS

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Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder.

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MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

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A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.

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DYSTHYMIC DISORDER

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Less disabling than major depressive disorder, but tends to cause people to experience low energy, and self-esteem, difficulty concentrating, making decisions, sleeping and eating normally

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BIPOLAR DISORDER

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A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and overexcited state of mania. (formally called manic depressive disorder)

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MOOD DISORDERS - THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

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Genetic Influences: mood disorders run in families. There is a search for the common gene among family members that causes depression

The Depressed Brain
- Norepinephrine, increases arousal & boosts mood, is scarce in depression and overabundant in mania
- nicotine can temporarily increase norepinephrine and boost mood
- Serotonin is also sparse during depression
- Drugs that relieve depression tend to increase norepinephrine or serotonin supplies by either blocking their reuptake or their chemical breakdown

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MOOD DISORDERS - THE SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

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Self-defeating beliefs and a negative explanatory style feed depressions vicious cycle.
Negative Thoughts and Negative Moods Interact
- Self-defeating beliefs may arise from learned helplessness

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SCHIZOPHRENIA

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A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions.

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DELUSION (WITH RESPECT TO SCHIZOPHRENIA)

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False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.
- those with paranoid tendencies are more prone to delusions of persecution

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DISORGANISED THINKING (WITH RESPECT TO SCHIZOPHRENIA)

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- Jumping from one idea to another may occur even within one sentence
- Difficulty with selective attention, focusing on what is important.

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DISTURBER PERCEPTIONS (WITH RESPECT TO SCHIZOPHRENIA)

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- a person may perceive things as not really there
- hallucinations often take the form of a voice making insulting statements or giving orders

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HALLUCINATIONS (WITH RESPECT TO SCHIZOPHRENIA)

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sensory experiences without sensory stimulation

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POSITIVE SYMPTOMS (WITH RESPECT TO SCHIZOPHRENIA)

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The presence of inappropriate behaviours
e.g. hallucinations, talk in disorganized and deluded ways, and exhibit inappropriate laughter tears or rage

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NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS

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the absence of appropriate behaviours
e.g. toneless voices, expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies

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WHAT ARE THE 5 SUBTYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA?

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Paranoid
Disorganised
Catatonic
Undifferentiated
Residual

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PARANOID SCHIZOPHRENIA

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Preoccupation with delusions or hallucinations, often with themes of persecution or grandiosity

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DISORGANISED SCHIZOPHRENIA

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Disorganized speech or behaviour, or flat or inappropriate emotion

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CATATONIC SCHIZPPHRENIA

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Immobility (or excessive, purposeless movement), extreme negativism, and/or parrot-like repeating of another’s speech or movement

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UNDIFFERENTIATED SCHIZOPHHRENIA

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Many and varied symptoms

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RESIDUAL SCHIZOPHRENIA

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Withdrawal, after hallucinations and delusions have disappeared

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SCHIZOPHRENIA - BIOCHEMICAL LINK

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Dopamine Overactivity - an excess of dopamine receptors. Suggested association with positive symptoms like hallucinations and paranoia

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PERSONALITY DISTORDERS

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psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behaviour patterns that impair social functioning
3 clusters

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WHAT ARE THE 3 CLUSTERS OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS?

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Cluster A - Odd/eccentric: schizoid, schizotypal
Cluster B - Dramatic/emotional/erratic: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
Cluster C - Anxious/fearful: dependent, avoidant, obsessive-compulsive.

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CLUSTER A - PERSONALITY DISTORDERS

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Odd/eccentric
Paranoid personality disorder
Schizoid personality disorder
Schizotypal personality disorder

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PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER A
An ongoing, unfounded suspiciousness and distrust of people. Making them feel they are being exploited/deceived by others. often emotionally detached.

When diagnosed, schizophrenia & psychotic features of mood disorders must be ruled out.

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SCHIZOID PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER A
Has few social relationships, expresses few emotions (especially warmth/tenderness), & appears to not care about the praise or criticism of others.

They may appear absent minded and aloof, but are actually very shy.

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SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER A
Characterised by problems with social & interpersonal relationships.has cognitive distortions and may appear to be quite eccentric in their behaviour.
e.g. magical thinking (‘if I think this, I can make that happen’), paranoia, and other seemingly strange thoughts.

When diagnosed, schizophrenia, mood disorder with psychosis, another psychotic disorder or a persistent developmental disorder need to be ruled out.

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CLUSTER B - PERSONALITY DISORDERS

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Dramatic/emotional/erratic
Antisocial personality disorder
Borderline personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder

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ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER B
ASPD is linked with criminal behaviour. Often impulsive/reckless, no consideration of consequences for themselves or others. Put their needs above those of others. Often regarded as selfish, prone to outbursts of aggression & violence.

A diagnosis of ASPD is not usually given to someone under 18 years old. Conduct problems

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BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER B
(BPD) refers to the symptoms being on the borderline between psychosis and neurosis. A disorder in which a person has a pattern of unstable personal relationships, poor impulse control in areas such as spending, sexual conduct, driving, eating,& substance abuse. They may not have a strong sense of who they are.

A person suffering from BPD fears abandonment & will go to any length to prevent this, often feeling chronic emptiness.
suicidal threats, gestures or attempts There may also be self-harm. Their mood may change quickly, often with outbursts of anger. Someone with BPD may also experience hallucinations and delusions.

BPD is a controversial diagnosis, and some psychiatrists do not believe it exists.

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HISTRIONIC PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER B
Characterised by people likely to be the centre of attention, lively & over dramatic.
They easily become bored with normal routines, and crave new, novel situations and excitement. In relationships, they form bonds quickly, but the relationships are often shallow, with the person demanding increasing amounts of attention.

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NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER B
Involves grandiose (inflated) self-importance & preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success.
Often considered conceited. They act selfishly, with a sense of entitlement over others. They generally have a low self-esteem.

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CLUSTER C - PERSONALITY DISORDERS

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Anxious/fearful
Dependent personality
Avoidant personality disorder
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

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DEPENDENT PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER C
Involves passively allowing others to assume responsibility for major areas of ones life,
The person makes their own needs secondary to the needs of others. While everyone is dependent on others in some parts of their lives,these people are dependent on almost all major areas of their lives and view themselves only through an extension of others.

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AVIODANT PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER C
Has an extreme fear of being judged negatively by other people and suffers from a high level of social discomfort as a result. They tend only to enter into relationships where uncritical acceptance is almost guaranteed, undergo social withdrawal and suffer low self-esteem. They have a great desire for affection and acceptance, but the fear of rejection can overwhelm this desire.

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OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY DISORDER

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CLUSTER C
Has a low ability to show warm/tender emotions, perfectionism that decreases the ability to see the larger picture & difficulty in doing things any way but their own.

Essentially, everything must be just right, and nothing can be left to chance. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is different from obsessive compulsive disorder, which must be ruled out before a diagnosis is made.