Intro To Microbiology Vocab Exam 3

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2,3 dideoxyribonucleatide triphosphates

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Nucleotides lacking a 3'-hydroxyl (-oh) group on their deoxyribose sugar. The lack of this hydroxyl group means that, after being added by a DNA polymerase to a growing nucleotided chain, no further nucleotides can be added, effecting an end to the DNA sequence.

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5' and 3' carbon

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The chemical convention of naming carbon atoms in the nucleotide sugar-ring numerically gives rise to a 5'-end and a 3'-end (usually pronounced "five prime end" and "three prime end"). This creates directionality. Nucleic acids can only be synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction.

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adenine

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One of the nitrogen bases which makes up part of a nucleotide, found in DNA and RNA, with a purine (two-ring) form,

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adsorption

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The process of adhering one molecule to the surface of another molecule. With animal viruses, it is the first stage of the viral life cycle, where the virus attaches to its host cell by specific binding of its spikes to cell membrane receptors.

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agarose gel

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A substance that is used in science for gel electrophoresis to separate and analyze proteins and DNA. In the gel matrix, smaller molecules of DNA or RNA are able to move more quickly than larger molecules, separating from each other as they are attracted to the positive pole.

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aldehydes

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Organic compounds that contain the group- CHO (the aldehyde group; i.e. a carbonyl group (c=o) with a hydrogen atom bound to the carbon atom) Aldehydes are formed by oxidation of primary alcohols; further oxidation yields carboxylic acids. Aldehydes are reducing agents.

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alkali

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The opposite of acid is an Alkali which dissolves in water to form negatively charged ions of hydrogen and oxygen called hydroxide ions (oh-). Alkalis are anti acids because they cancel out acidity.

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Ames Test

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A test for determining if a chemical is a mutagen, therefore potentially carcinogenic, based on the genetic alteration of nutritionally defective bacteria. Bacteria are used as test subjects because of their rapid reproduction and mutation rate. The premise is that any chemical capable of mutating bacterial DNA can similarly mutate mammalian (human) DNA. Named for its developer Bruce Ames.

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Anneal

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To subject nucleic acid to a process of heating and cooling in order to separate its strands

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Anticodon

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The trinucleotide sequence of transfer RNA that is complementary to the trinucleotide sequence of messenger RNA.

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Antiparallel

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Antiparallel is the orientation of adjacent molecules. An example would be in the DNA double helix the different strands in the helix run in opposite (anti-parallel) directions.

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Antisepsis

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Chemical treatments to kill or inhibit the growth of all vegetative microorganisms on body surfaces.

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Asepsis

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A condition free of viable pathogenic microorganisms

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assembly

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The step in viral multiplication in which capsids and genetic material are packaged into virions.

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Autoclaving

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Autoclaving is the process of sterilizing with the use of steam under pressure. The most common temp/pressure combination for autoclaving is 121 degrees C and 15 Psi.

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bacteriophage

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A virus that specifically infects bacteria

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Base Analogs

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A base analog is a chemical that can substitute for a normal nucleobase in nucleic acids.

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Capsids

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The protein coat that surrounds the nucleic acid and sometimes one or two enzymes in the central core, of a virus, called the nucleocapsid.

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carinogens

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A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes.

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cDNA

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DNA created by using reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA from RNA templates. Common in the HIV virus- which is called a "retro-virus".

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Chlorohexidine

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a chemical antiseptic. It is effective on both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, although it is less effective with some Gram-negative bacteria. It has both bactericidal and bacteriostatic mechanisms of action, the mechanism of action being membrane disruption, not ATPase inactivation as previously through. it is also useful against some fungi and enveloped viruses.

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cloning vector

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A DNA molecule that carries foreign DNA into a host cell, replicates inside a bacterial cell and produces many copies of itself and the foreign DNA.

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coding region

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Coding regions are regions of DNA/RNA sequences that code for proteins. Usually starts with a start codon (ATG) and ends with a stop codon.

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codon

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A specific sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that constitutes the genetic code for a particular amino acid.

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complimentary DNA strand

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Complementary DNA is DNA in which the sequence of the constituent molecules on one strand of the double stranded structure chemically matches the sequence on the other strand.

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conjugation

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In bacteria, the contact between donor and recipient cells associated with the transfer of genetic material such as plasmids. Can involve special pili. Also a form of sexual recombination in ciliated protozoans.

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Cytosine

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One of the nitrogen bases found in DNA and RNA, with a pyrimidine form.

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Decontamination

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The removal or neutralization of an infectious, poisonous, or injurious agent from a site.

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Degermation

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The process of physically removing surface oils, debris, and soil from skin to reduce the microbial load.

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Denaturation

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the loss of normal characteristics resulting from some molecular alteration. Usually in reference to the action of heat or chemicals on proteins whose function depends upon an unaltered tertiary structure.

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Desiccation

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To dry thoroughly. To preserve by drying.The excessive loss of moisture, the process of drying up.

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detergents

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A cleansing substance that acts similarly to soap but is made from chemical compounds rather than fats and lye. Having cleansing power.

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disinfection

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the act of disinfecting, using specialized cleansing techniques that destroy or prevent growth of organisms capable of infection. Terminal Disinfection- disinfection of a sick room and its contents at the termination of a disease.

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double helix

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Nucleic acid, structure of DNA with 2 strands, antiparallel arrangement, one side of the helix runs in the opposite direction of the other. The order of the bond between the carbon on the deoxyribose and the phosphate is used to keep track of the direction of the two sides of the helix.

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dyes

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Among the substances that can be used as selective agents are dyes such as crystal violet, eosin Y, and methylene blue all of which inhibit Gram-positive organisms.

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Electrophoresis

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the separation of molecules by size and charge through exposure to an electrical current.

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Envelopes

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the enveloped virus is composed of a nucleocapsid surrounded by a flexible membrane. (Not all viruses have envelopes). When enveloped viruses (mostly animals) are released from the host cell, they take with them a bit of its membrane system in the form of an envelope.

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extension

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In the 3rd phase of PCR, which proceeds at 70 degrees celcius, DNA polymerase and raw materials in the form of nucleotides are added. Beginning at the free end of the primers on both strands, the polymerases extend the molecule by adding appropriate nucleotides and produce two complete strands of DNA.

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Filtration

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An effective method to remove microbes from air and liquids. In practice, a fluid is strained through a filter with openings large enough for fluid to pass through but too small for microorganisms to pass through. Filtration is used in water purification. Filters are also used to remove airborne contaminants (hospitals)

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Frameshift mutations

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An insertion or deletion mutation that changes the codon reading frame from the point of the mutation to the final codon. Almost always leads to a nonfunctional protein.

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Gaseous Sterilants

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Complete destruction of all biological life and sterilization efficacy is typically considered adequate if less than one in a million microbes remain viable. Hazardous gases use d in health care and other facilities to sterilize medical supplies that cannot be sterilized by heat or steam methods.

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Gel electrophoresis

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In this procedure, scientists use an electrical charge to move DNA or RNA through a gel matrix toward a positive pole. Because the molecules have to move through small holes in the lattice bonds in the agarose gel, smaller molecules move much faster than larger molecule. Using ultraviolet imaging of the molecules' movement and a formula that relates molecular weight to the speed of travel through the gel, scientists can determine the size of the molecules and separate them according to their length,

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gene

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the biologic unit of heredity, self-reproducing and located at a definite position (locus) on a particular chromosome.

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genome

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the complete set of hereditary factors contained in the haploid set of chromosomes

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genotype

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the genetic makeup of an organism. Ultimately responsible for that organism's physical traits

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Guanine

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One of the nitrogen bases found in DNA and RNA in the purine form,

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Halogens

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A group of related chemical with antimicrobial applications. The halogens most often used in disinfectants and antiseptics are chlorine and iodine.

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Heavy metal

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A member of a loosely defined subset of elements that contain metallic properties. Different definitions are based on density, atomic weight or number, or other chemical properties such as toxicity. - A metal of relatively high density (specific gravity greater than about 5) or of high relative atomic weight.

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Horizontal Gene Transfer

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Transmission of genetic material from one cell to another through non reproductive mechanisms. (I.E. from one organism to another living in the same habitat.)

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hybridization probe

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A fragment of DNA or RNA of variable length (usually 100 to 1000 bases long) which is used to detect nucleotide sequences that are complementary to the sequence in the probe.

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hydrogen bond

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A weak chemical bond formed by the attraction of forces between molecules or atoms, in this case hydrogen and either oxygen or nitrogen. In this type of bond, electrons are not shared, lost or gained.

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Hydrogen peroxide

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The simplest peroxide. It is used as a cleaning or bleaching agent, and is especially useful in eliminating infections and other microorganisms.

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Insertions vs deletions

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Insertion: mutation that results in addition of extra DNA, it can also cause frameshift mutations and a general result in a nonfunctional protein.
Deletion: mutations that result in missing DNA, can be small or longer deletions that affect a large number of genes on the chromosome- can also cause frameshift mutations.

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Leading vs lagging strand

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Lagging Strand: in DNA replication, the strand in which the nascent strand is synthesized in discontinuous segments after the other or leading strand. See also okazaki fragments.
Leading Strand: in DNA replication, the strand that is copied continuously
The leading strand is synthesized in the same direction as the movement of the replication fork and the lagging strand is synthesized in the opposite direction, leading is synthesized continuously whereas the lagging is synthesized in short fragments that are ultimately stitched together.

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Ligase

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any of a class of enzymes that catalyze the joining together of two molecules coupled with the breakdown of a pyrophosphate bond in ATP or a similar triphosphate.

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Lyophilization

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The process of isolating a solid substance from solution by freezing the solution and vaporizing the ice away under vacuum conditions. Also called freeze-drying.

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lysogenic cycle

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One of the ways of virus reproduction (other is lytic). Bacteriophage's nucleic acid fuses together with the hosts nucleic acid, so that the genetic information of the virus is transmitted through the daughter cells.

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lytic cycle

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One of the ways of viral reproduction, which is usually considered as the main method of viral reproduction because it ends in the lysis of the infected cell releasing the progeny viruses that will in turn spread and infect other cells
Process: Attachment-Injection-Integration-Replication-Assemble-Lysis

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Messenger RNA (mRNA)

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RNA molecules, usually 400 to 10000 bases long, that serve as templates for protein synthesis (translation)

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Moist and Dry heat

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Dry heat kills microorganisms by reacting with and oxidizing their proteins.
Moist heat kills microorganisms in such things as boiling water.

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Mutagen

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Any agent that induces genetic mutation. Examples: certain chemical substances, ultraviolet light, radioactivity.

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Mutation

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A permanent inheritable alteration in the DNA sequence or content of a cell

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Negative sense RNA viruses

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Single-stranded RNA genomes that have to be converted into the proper form to be made into proteins

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Nitrogenous bases

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A nitrogen-containing molecule found in DNA and RNA that provides the basis for the genetic code. Adenine, guanine, and cytosine are found in both DNA and RNA while thymine is found exclusively in DNA and uracil is found exclusively in RNA,.

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nonsense mutation

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A mutation that changes an amino-acid producing codon into a stop codon, leading to premature termination of a protein.

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Okazaki Fragment

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In replication of DNA, a segment formed on the lagging strand in which biosynthesis is conducted in a discontinuous manner dictated by the 5'-3' DNA polymerase orientation.

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Osmotic Pressure

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The pressure required to prevent osmosis through a semipermeable membrane between a solution and pure solvent; it is proportional to the osmolality of the solutions.

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pasteurization

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Heat treatment of perishable fluids such as milk, fruit juices or wine to destroy heat-sensative vegetative cells, followed by rapid chilling to inhibit growth of survivors and germination of spores. It prevents infection and spoilage.

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Penetration

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the step in viral multiplication in which viruses enter a host cell.

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Phenolic compounds

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All contain a basic aromatic carbon ring plus additional aromatic rings and/or added functional groups such as Cl and CH3

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Phenotype

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The observable characteristics of an organism produced by the interaction between its genetic potential (genotype) and the environment.

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Phosphate

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An acidic salt containing phosphorus and oxygen that is an essential inorganic component of DNA, RNA, and ATP

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Point mutations

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A change that involves the loss, substitution, or addition of one or a few nucleotides.

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Priming

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The process where the synthetic nucleotide strands inserted for pairing with parental template of DNA; usually it is installed at the opposite ends of the strands, and zipped back together by DNA polymerase. The primary use of this process is for building recombinant DNA.

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promoter region

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The site composed of a short signaling DNA sequence that RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to commence transcription

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Protein

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Predominant organic molecule in cells, formed by long chains of amino acids.

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Radiation

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electromagnetic waves or rays, such as those of light given off from an energy source

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Recombinant DNA

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Deliberately removing genetic material from one organism and combining it with that of a different organism

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Replication Fork

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the Y shaped point on a replication DNA molecule where the DNA polymerase is synthesizing new strand of DNA

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Reporter Gene

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A gene that researchers attach to a regulatory sequence of another gene of interest in cell culture, animals or plants. A reporter gene is often used as an indication of whether a certain gene type has been taken up by or expressed in the cell or organism population

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Resistance factors (R factors)

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Plasmids, typically shared among bacteria by conjugation, that provide resistance to the effects of antibiotics

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Restriction endonucleases

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Any of the enzymes that cut nucleic acid at specific restriction sites and produce restriction fragments, obtained from bacteria (where they cripple viral invaders) used in recombinant DNA technology

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Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)

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Life Sciences & Allied Applications/Genetics) restriction fragment length polymorphism; any variation in DNA between individuals revealed by restriction enzymes that cut DNA into fragments of different lengths in consequence of such variations. It is used forensically and in the diagnosis of hereditary disease.

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Restriction Site

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the specific sites at which a restriction enzyme will cleave DNA
Site- physical position in relation to the surroundings

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Retroviruses

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Any of a group of viruses, may of which produce tumors, that contain RNA and reverse transcriptase, including the virus that causes AIDS.

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Reverse Transcriptase

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An enzyme present in retroviruses that copies RNA into DNA, thus reversing the usual flow of genetic information in which DNA is copied into RNA

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Ribose Sugar

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a pentose sugar that is an isomeric form of arabinose and that occurs in RNA and riboflavin, nucleotides and nucleic acids. Formula: CH2OH(CHOH)3CHO

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Ribosomal RNA

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The RNA that is a permanent structural part of a ribosome. Biochem: a type of RNA thought to be transcribed from DNA in the nucleoli of cell nuclei, subsequentially forming the component of ribosomes on which the translation of messenger RNA into protein chains is accomplished. Sometimes shortened to rRNA.

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RNA ploymerase

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The enzyme that translates the code of DNA to RNA.

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Sanitization

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Any cleansing technique that mechanically removes microorganisms, as well as other debris, to reduce contamination to safe levels.

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semiconservative replication

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In DNA replication, the synthesis of paired daughter strands, each retaining a parent strand template

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sepsis

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The state of putrefaction (decomposition); The presence of pathogenic organisms or their toxins in tissue or blood.

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Shapes

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Virus Shapes: the capsomers (protein subunits of capsid) arrange and assemble in different ways forming two virus shapes:
Helical- have rod shaped capsomers that form a series of hollow disks resembling a bracelet. Ex: tobacco mosaic virus.
Icosahedral- is a three dimensional, 20 sided figure with 12 evenly spaced corners. Majority of major virus families are arranged in this shape. Ex: poliovirus

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Single Stranded Templates

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The strand in a double-stranded DNA molecule that is used as a model to synthesize a complementary strand of DNA or RNA during replication or transcription.

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Southern Blot

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One of the important first steps for preparing isolated genes. A technique that separates fragments of DNA using electrophoresis and identifies them by hybridization.

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Spontaneous mutation

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A mutation in DNA caused by random mistakes in replication and not known to be influenced by any mutagenic agent. These mutations give rise to an organism's natural, or background, rate of mutation.

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Stabilizing Proteins

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Proteins that keeps DNA from coiling back onto itself during DNA replication

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Start and Stop Codons (AKA nonsense or termination)

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Start Codon: A nucleotide triplet AUG, methyenin, that codes for the first amino acid in protein sequences. (beginning of a sentence)
Stop Codon: A nucleotide triplet that lets the ribosome know when it has come to the end of the mRNA strand (end of a sentence)

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Sterilization

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Any process that completely removes or destroys all viable microorganisms, including viruses, from an object or habitat.

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Sticky ends

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Fragments of DNA that have been cut with restriction enzymes have unpaired nucleotides at the ends called sticky ends. All the fragments will have the same sticky ends

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Synthesis

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The step in viral multiplication in which viral genetic material and proteins are made through replication and transcription/translation

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Target Sequence

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A signal peptide is a short (3-60 amino acids long) peptide chain that directs the transport of a protein. Signal peptides may also be called targeting signals, signal sequences, transit peptides, or localization signals.

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Template

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The strand in a double-stranded DNA molecule that is used as a model to synthesize a complementary strand of DNA or RNA during the replication or transcription

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Terminator region

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The area on a gene that tells RNA polymerase to stop making mRNA

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Thymine

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One of the nitrogen bases found in DNA but not in RNA. Thymine is in a pyrimidine form

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Transcription

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mRNA synthesis; the process by which a strand of RNA is produced against a DNA template

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Transduction

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The transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another by means of a bacteriophage vector

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Transfer RNA (tRNA)

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A transcript of DNA that specializes in converting RNA language into protein language

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Transformation

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In microbial genetics, the transfer of genetic material contained in "naked" DNA fragments from a donor cell to a competent recipient cell

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Translation

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Protein synthesis; the process of decoding the messenger RNA code into a polypeptide.

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Transposons

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A DNA segment with an insertion sequence at each end, enabling it to migrate to another plasmid, to the bacterial chromosome or to a bacteriophage

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Uncoating

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the process of removal of the viral coat and release of the viral genome by its newly invaded host cell

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Unwinding enzymes

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Also know as helicase. Bind to the DNA at the origin, prior to the start of replication. These enzymes untwist the helix and break the hydrogen bonds holding the two strands together, resulting in two separate strands, each of which will be used as a template for the synthesis of a new strand.

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Acids

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1- Any of a class of substances whose aqueous solutions are characterized by a sour taste, the ability to turn blue litmus red, and the ability to react with bases and certain metals to form salts.
2- A substance that yields hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
3- A substance that can act as a proton donor.
4- A substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond.

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Agricultural Microbiology

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A branch of microbiology dealing with plant-associated microbes and plant and animal diseases. It also deals with the microbiology of soil fertility, such as microbial degradation of organic matter and soil nutrient transformations.

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Algae

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Photosynthetic, plant like organisms that generally lack the complex structure of plants; they may be single-celled or multicellular and inhabit diverse habitats such as marine and fresh water environments, glaciers, and hot springs.

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Amino Acid

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The building blocks of protein. Amino acids exist in 20 naturally occurring forms that impart different characteristics to the carious proteins they compose.

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Amphipathic Molecule

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A molecule that has contrasting characteristics, such as hydrophilic-hydrophobic or acid-base.

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Anabolism

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The synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy; constructive metabolism

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Anion

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An atom with an excess of electrons, resulting in a negative charge

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Apicomplexa

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Also referred to as Apicomplexia, are a large group of protists, most of which posses a unique organelle called apicoplast and an apical complex structure involved in penetrating a host's cell. They are unicellular, spore-forming, and exclusively parasites of animals.

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Aquatic Microbiology

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Studies the ecology of microorganisms in aquatic environments. Aquatic microorganisms include viruses, bacteria, phytoplankton, fungi, and zooplankton

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Archaea

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A group of prokaryotic organisms. originally thought to be types of bacteria, they have since been grouped into their own domain within the last 3 domain systems. Archaeans were originally seen in environments with extreme conditions (high temp, acidity, or alkaline environments). In the intervening years, they have been found to be much more common than first thought.
Structurally similar to bacteria but use some metabolic processes of eukaryotes.
One of the most notable differences in structure between the archaea and bacteria is primary composition of the cell walls. A chemical substitution in the structure lends the archaea a more chemically resistant membrane than other prokaryotes.

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Atom

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Smallest unit of structured matter to maintain consistent properties. Composed of a nucleus that houses protons and neutrons surrounded by a cloud of electrons. Basic building block of matter.

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Atomic Mass

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The average of the mass numbers of all the isotopic forms for a particular element.

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Atomic Number

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A measurement of the number of protons contained within one atom of a particular element. On the periodic table, the atomic number is the large whole number listed above the chemical symbol (letter)

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ATP

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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is often referred to as "molecular unit of currency". It is the molecule, composed of an adenine group, a ribose, and 3 phosphate groups, that provides energy for many metabolic processes in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Most processes that use ATP as a resource break the molecule back down into primal parts to be later converted back into ATP.

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Axial Filament

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An endoflagellum (a type of flagellum that is encolsed within the cell) in spirochetes that is used for locomotion. Axial filaments forma series of spirals between the cell wall and cell membrane. Locomotion is expressed by coiling around the spirochete and twisting and flexing.

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Bacillus

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Rods Shaped Bacterium

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Bacteria
Singular: Bacterium

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A domain of prokaryotes that are ubiquitous in almost any imaginable habitat. They vary in shape and size but most often are identifiable by their metabolic processes. That is, what types of chemicals they use in their cellular processes.

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Basal Body

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A cellular organelle associated with the formation of cilia and flagella and resembling the centriole in structure.

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Bases

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Substance which can accept protons or any chemical compound that yields hydroxide ions in solution. It is also commonly referred to as any substance that can react with an acid to decrease or neutralize its acidic properties, change the color of indicators, fell slippery to the touch when in solution, taste bitter, react with acids to form salts, and promote certain chemical reactions.

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Bioremediation

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Decomposition of chemical pollutants by microbes, either naturally occurring or genetically modified.

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Biotechnology

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The use of microbes or their products in commercial or industry realm

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Buffers

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Resist abrupt and large swings in pH of body fluids by releasing hydrogen ions when the pH begins to rise and by binding hydrogen ions when the pH drops.

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Capsule

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In bacteria, the loose gel like covering made chiefly of polysacchrides. This layer is protective and can be associated with virulence

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Catabolism

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Chemical break down of complex compounds into simple units to be used in cell metabolism

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Cation

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A positively charged ion

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Cestodes (Tapeworms)

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The common name for tapeworms that parasitize humans and domestic animals.

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Chemical energy

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energy released or absorbed in a chemical reaction during the decomposition or formation of compounds. Example: The energy released from ATP or glucose during a chemical reaction

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Chemical Reactions

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A change in which a substance (or substances) is changed into one or more new substances. A chemical reaction that is very easily created is Liquid to Gas.

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Chemotaxis

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The tendency of organisms to move in response to a chemical gradient (toward an attractant or to avoid adverse stimuli)

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Chlamydias

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Pathogenic bacterium, a spherical bacterium that causes several eye and urogenital diseases in humans or other animals, and psittacosis in pet birds.

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Chloroplasts

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An organelle containing chlorophyll that is found in photosynthetic eukaryotes

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Chromosome

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the tightly coiled bodies in cells that are the primary sites of genes

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Cilia
Singular: Cilium

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Eukaryotic structure similar to a flagellum that propels a protozoan through the environment.

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Ciliophora
(Ciliates)

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Class of protozoa having cilia or hairlike appendages on part or all of the surface during some part of the life cycle.

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Class

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In the levels of classification, the division of organisms that follows phylum.

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Cocci

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A spherical shaped bacterial cell. Example: Staphellococcus.

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Conjugation pilus

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Small, stiff, filamentous appendage used to bring two bacterial cells together to transfer DNA

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Covalent Bonding

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A form of chemical bonding that is characterized y the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms.

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Cyanobacteria

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a division of microorganisms that are related to the bacteria but are capable of photosynthesis. Class: Cyanophyceae, Kingdom: Eubacteria

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Cytoplasm

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the jelly-like substance inside the cell that contains the cytosol, organelles, and inclusions but not including the nucleus

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Cytoskeleton

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microscopic network of protein filaments and tubules in the cytoplasm giving the cell shape and coherence.

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Decomposition (degradation reactions)

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The separation of a substance into two or more substances that may differ from each other and the original substance.
Ecological: the process of breaking down organic material, such as dead plant or animal tissue, into smaller molecules that are available for use by the organisms of an ecosystem.

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Denaturation

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When a protein's naturally occurring shape (native state) is changed or disfigured due to introduced chemical stimuli (usually acid or alcohol) or abnormally high temperatures rendering the protein nonfunctional.

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Disaccharides

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Any of a class of sugars,including lactose and sucrose, whose molecules contain two monosaccharides

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DNA

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Deoxyribonucleic acid. The nucleic acid often referred to as the "double helix". DNA carries the master plan for an organisms heredity.

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Domain

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In the levels of classification, the broadest general category to which an organism is assigned, members of a domain share only one or a few general characteristics.

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Electron Acceptor

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An atom that will readily accept electrons to fill up it's outer shell to become stable

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Electron Donor

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An atom that will readily give up electrons to be shared with another atom so both become more stable.

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Electron Shells

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Space around an atom that is occupied by pairs of electrons and the associated electron orbitals. Each shell holds only a certain amount of orbitals and as they are filled become farther away from the nucleus of the atom.

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Electrons

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Negatively charged subatomic particles that are distributed around the nucleus of an atom.

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Element

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A substance comprising only one kind of atom that cannot be degraded into two or more substances without losing it's chemical characteristics

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Endoplasmic Reticulum
RER- rough
SER- smooth

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An intracellular network of flattened sacs or tubules with or without ribosomes on their surfaces.
RER: microscopic series of tunnels that originate in the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope and is used in transport and storage. Large numbers of ribosomes, partly attached to the membrane give a rough appearance.
SER: microscopic series of tunnels lacking ribosomes that function in the nutrient processing function of the cell.

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Endospores

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A small, dormant, resistant derivative of a bacterial cell that germinates under favorable growth conditions into a vegetative cell. the bacterial general Bacillus and Clostridium are typical sporeformers.

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Endosymbiotic Hypothesis

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Concerns the mitochondria and chloroplasts. It is suggested that eukaryotic cells arose when a very large prokaryote engulfed smaller prokaryotic cells that began to live and reproduce inside the larger cell rather than being destroyed. As the smaller cells took up permanent residence, they came to perform specialized functions for the larger cell, from service as a nucleus, to performing functions such as food synthesis and oxygen utilization.

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Epidemiology

Back 168

The study of the factors affecting the prevalence and spread of disease within a community

Front 169

Eukaryotes

Back 169

A cell that differs from a prokaryotic cell chiefly by having a nuclear membrane (a well-defined nucleus), membrane-bound subcellular organelles and mitotic cell division.

Front 170

Evolution

Back 170

Scientific principle that states that living things change gradually through hundreds of millions of years, and these changes are expressed in structural and functional adaptations in each organism. Evolution presumes that those traits that favor survival are preserved and passed on to following generations, and those traits that do not favor survival are lost.

Front 171

Exchange Reaction

Back 171

During exchange reactions, the reactants trade portions between each other and release products that are combinations of the two. This type of reaction occurs between acids and bases when they form water and a salt

Front 172

Family

Back 172

In the levels of classification, a midlevel division of organisms that groups more closely related organisms than previous levels. An order is divided into families.

Front 173

Fatty Acids

Back 173

A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long un-branched aliphatic tail, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms. Fatty acids are usually derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. when they are not attached to other molecules, they are know as free fatty acids. Fatty acids are important sources of fuel because, metabolized, they yield large quantities of ATP. Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose.

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Filament

Back 174

A helical structure composed of proteins that is part of bacterial flagella

Front 175

Fimbriae

Back 175

Fine, hairlike bristles extending from the cell surface that help in adhesion to other cells and surfaces.

Front 176

Flagella

Back 176

A structure that is used to propel the organism through a fluid environment

Front 177

Fluid Mosaic Model

Back 177

A conceptualization of the molecular architecture of cellular membranes as a bilayer of phospholipids containing proteins. Membrane proteins are embedded to some degree in this bilayer, where they drift freely from side to side.

Front 178

Food and Dairy Microbiology

Back 178

The detection and analysis of foodborne spoilage microorganisms. The study of food microorganisms, how we can identify and culture them, how they live, how some infect and cause disease and how we can make use of their activities.

Front 179

Functional Group

Back 179

In chemistry, a particular molecular combination that reacts in predictable ways and confers particular properties on a compound. Example: COOH, --OH, --CHO

Front 180

Fungi

Back 180

Macroscopic and microscopic heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that can be uni or multicellular

Front 181

Genetic engineering

Back 181

A field involving deliberate alterations (recombinations) of the genomes of microbes, plants and animals through special technological processes.

Front 182

Genus
Plural: Genera

Back 182

In the levels of classification, the second most specific level. A family is divided into several genera

Front 183

Germ Theory of Disease

Back 183

A theory first originating in the 1800s that proposed that microorganisms can be the cause of diseases. The concept is actually so well established in the present time that it is considered fact.

Front 184

Glycerol

Back 184

a 3-carbon alcohol, with three OH groups that serve as binding sites

Front 185

Glycocalyx

Back 185

A filamentous network of carbohydrate-rich molecules that coats cells. (Coating on a cell membrane)

Front 186

Golgi Apparatus

Back 186

An organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. it processes and packages proteins after their synthesis and before they make their way to their destination. It is particularly important in the processing of proteins for secretion. The Golgi Apparatus forms a part of the cellular endomembrane system.
Structure: Found in both plant and animal cells, the Golgi is composed of stacks of membrane-bound structures known as cisternae (singular: cisterna)
Function: cells synthesize a large number of different macromolecules. the Golgi Apparatus is integral in modifying, sorting and packaging these for cell secretion or use within the cell. it primarily modifies proteins delivered from the RER but is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell, and the creation of lysosomes. In this respect it can be though of as similar to a post office

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Gram-Negative

Back 187

Single celled or noncellular spherical or rod shapped organisms lacking chlorophyll that reproduce by fission. Relating to a group of bacteria that do not change color when subjected to the lab staining method know as Gram's Stain. Have relatively thin cell walls and are generally resistant to the effects of antibiotics or the actions of the body's immune cells. Includes E. coli and the bacteria that cause gonorrhea, typhoid fever, rickettsial fever, cholera, syphilis, plague, and Lyme disease.
Characteristics:
- Cell walls only contain a few layers of peptidoglycan
-Cells are surrounded by an outer membrane, which act like pores for particular molecules
- There is a space bvetween the layers of peptidoglycan and the secondary cell membrane called the periplasmic space
- The S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane, rather than the peptidoglycan
- If present, flagella have four supporting rings instead of two
- No teichoic acids or lipoteichoic acids are present
- Lipoproteins are attached to the polysaccharide backbone whereas in Gram-positive bacteria no lipoproteins are present
- Most do not sporulate

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Gram-positive

Back 188

Relating to a group of bacteria that turn a dark-blue color when subjected to a lab staining method known as Gram's method. Gram-positive bacteria have relatively thick cell walls and are generally sensitive to the destuctive effects of antibiotics or the actions of the body's immune cells. Gram-positive bacteria include beneficial nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil, as well as the bacteria that cause anthrax, botulism, leprosy, tuberculosis, scarlet fever, and strep throat. Compare gram negative.
Characteristics:
- Very thick cell wall
- If a flagellum is present, it contains 2 rings for support as opposed to 4 in gram-negative bacteria because Gram-positive bacteria have only one membrane layer.
- Teichoic acids and lipoteichoic acids are present, which serve to act as chelating agents, and also for certain types of adherence.

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Greenhouse Gases
GHG

Back 189

a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greehouse gases on Earth are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. In the Solar System, the atmospheres of venus, Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause greenhouse effects. Without them earth's surface would be on average about 59 degrees F.
In the order of most abundance:
Water Vapor
Carbon Dioxide
Methane
Nitrous Oxide
Ozone

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Helminthes

Back 190

Parasitic worms that cause disease an illness in humans such as tapeworm, pinworm and trichinosis. They are usually transmitted via contaminated food, water, soil or other objects. Adult worms live in the intestines and other organs. minor infections may be asymptomatic, whereas stronger cases may cause dietary deficiencies or digestive, muscular, and nervous disorders.

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Hook (flagella)

Back 191

A tail-like projection that protrudes from the cell body of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and functions in locomotion.

Front 192

Hydrogen bonding

Back 192

A type of attractive (dipole to dipole) interaction between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom bonded to another electronegative atom. this bond always involves hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules or within parts of a single molecule. A hydrogen bond tends to be stronger than van der Waals forces but weaker than covalent bonds or ionic bonds.

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Hydrolysis reactions

Back 193

Decomposition or alteration of a chemical substance by water. The general formula is AB+H2O=AH+BOH

Front 194

Ionic Bonds

Back 194

A chemical bond in which electrons are transferred and not shared between atoms

Front 195

Ionization
(Dissociation)

Back 195

The aqueous dissociation of an electrolyte into ions

Front 196

Isomers

Back 196

Any of two or more substances that are composed of the same elements in the same proportions but differ in properties because of differences in the arrangement of atoms

Front 197

Isotopes

Back 197

A version of an element that is virtually identical in all chemical properties to another version except that their atoms have slightly different atomic masses

Front 198

Kingdom

Back 198

In the levels of classification, the second division from more general to more specific. each domain is divided into Kingdoms.

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Lipids

Back 199

A term used to describe a variety of substances that are not soluble in polar solvents such as water but will dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as benzene and chloroform. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, steriods and waxes

Front 200

Lipopolysaccharides

Back 200

A molecular complex of lipid and carbohydrate found in the bacterial cell wall. the "LPS" of gram-negative bacteria is an endotoxin with generalized pathologic effects such as fever

Front 201

Macromolecules

Back 201

Large, molecular compounds assembled from smaller subunits, most notable biochemicals. Seen by the naked eye.

Front 202

Mastigophora
(Flagellates)

Back 202

A superclass of the Protozoa characterized by possession of flagella

Front 203

Membrane Lipid (phospholipid) bilayer

Back 203

Cell membrane composed of two layers of phospholipids, arranged so the hydrophobic (non-polar) tails point inward and the hydrophilic (polar) heads point outward.

Front 204

Mitochondria

Back 204

Double membrane organelle of Eukaryotes that is the main site for aerobic respiration of cells.

Front 205

Monomers

Back 205

Simple molecule that can be linked by chemical bonds to form larger molecules

Front 206

Monosaccharides

Back 206

Simple sugar that is a building block for more complex carbohydrates. Example: Glucose

Front 207

Mycelium

Back 207

Filamentous mass that makes up mold. Composed of hyphae

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Mycoplasmas

Back 208

Genus of bacteria, contains no peptidoglycan wall. The cytoplasmic membrane is stabilized by steroids

Front 209

Mycoses

Back 209

Any disease caused by a fungus

Front 210

Natural Selection

Back 210

A process in which the environment places pressure on organisms to adapt and survive changing conditions. Only the survivors will be around to continue the life cycle and contribute their genes to future generations. this is considered a major factor in evolution of species.

Front 211

Nematodes
(Roundworms)

Back 211

Parasitic helminths that can live in the gastrointestinal tract. They have an elongated, cylindrical, unsegmented body.

Front 212

Neutrons

Back 212

An electrically neutral particle in the nuclei of all atoms except hydrogen.

Front 213

Nonpolar

Back 213

A term used to describe an electrically neutral molecule formed by covalent bonds between atoms that have the same or similar electronegativity

Front 214

Norma Microbiota

Back 214

the bacteria that is in our body at all times and remains either benign or beneficial. These microorganisms account for about 1/3 of the organisms on or in our body at all times and are as individualized to the person who possesses them as each person's individual finger prints.

Front 215

Nucleic acids

Back 215

A complex organic substance present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain.

Front 216

Nucleoid

Back 216

The basophilic nuclear region or nuclear body that contains the bacterial chromosomes

Front 217

Nucleus

Back 217

The positively charged central core of an atom, containing most of its mass.

A dense organelle present in most eukaryotic cells, typically a single rounded structure bounded by a double membrane, containing the genetic material.

Front 218

Order

Back 218

In the levels of classification, the division of organisms that follows class. increasing similarity may be noticed among organisms assigned to the same order.

Front 219

Organelles

Back 219

A small component of eukaryotic cells that is bounded by a membrane and specialized in function

Front 220

Organic compounds

Back 220

Molecules that contain atoms of the element carbon, usually combined with itself and with atoms of one or more other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, or fluorine

Front 221

Outer membrane

Back 221

An additional membrane possessed by gram-negative bacteria; a lipid bilayer containing specialized proteins and polysaccharides. It is outside of the cell wall.

Front 222

Parasite

Back 222

an organism that lives on or within another organism (the host), from which it obtains nutrients and enjoys protection. The parasite produces some degree of harm to the host.

Front 223

Pathogens

Back 223

An agent (usually a virus, bacterium, fungus, protozoa, or helminth) that causes disease.

Front 224

Peptide Bond

Back 224

The covalent union between two amino acids that forms between the amine group of one and the carboxyl group of the other. The basic bond of protein

Front 225

Peptide cross links

Back 225

At least four types of peptide cross-linkages in lysine-containing peptidoglycans of cell walls from Gram-positive bacteria

Front 226

Peptidoglycan

Back 226

A network of polysaccharide chains cross-linked by short peptide that forms the rigid part of bacterial cell walls. Gram-negative bacteria have a smaller amount of this rigid structure than do gram-positive bacteria.

Front 227

Peripgheral Protein

Back 227

These molecules attach to integral membrane proteins, or penetrate the peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. Peripheral proteins tend to collect in the water-soluble components.

Front 228

pH

Back 228

The negative log of the hydrogen ion (proton) concentration in a solution. As proton concentration goes up, pH goes down.

Front 229

Phospholipids

Back 229

A class of lipids that compose a major structural component of cell membrane.

Front 230

Photosynthesis

Back 230

A process occurring in plants, algae and some bacteria that traps the sun's energy and converts it to ATP in the cell. This energy is used to fix CO2 into organic compounds.

Front 231

Phylum

Back 231

Taxanomic rank below Kingdom and above Class. There is approximately 40 phyla. The botanic (plant) term for this would be division.Grouping organisms based on general specialization of body plan, as well as developmental or internal organization. An example of that is crabs and spiders though quite different species are in the same phylum Arthopoda.

Front 232

Pili

Back 232

The hairlike appendage found on the surface of most bacteria. Pili is the plurarl form of the word pilus.

Front 233

Plasma Membrane

Back 233

The part of the cell that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment. They are made from fat and protein. Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity, cell signaling, and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton.

Front 234

Plasmid

Back 234

A plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA. They can replicate on their own. They occur naturally in bacteria. They are not considered to be living

Front 235

Polar

Back 235

A molecule with an asymmetrical distribution of charges. Such a molecule has a negative pole and a positive pole. The opposites that attract.

Front 236

Polar Molecule

Back 236

A molecule in which the centroid of the positive charges is different from the centroid of the negative charges.

Front 237

Polymer

Back 237

A macromolecule made up of a chain of repeating units. An example would be starch, protein and DNA. They are usually connected by covalent bonds.

Front 238

Polypeptide

Back 238

A chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds and having a molecular weight of up to about 10000

Front 239

Public Health Microbiology

Back 239

Branch of microbiology that monitors and controls the spread of diseases.

Front 240

R-group

Back 240

The variable side-chain that creates the differences between amino acids. The variations of amino acids occur at the R-group.

Front 241

Receptor

Back 241

Cell surface molecules involved in recognition, binding and intracellular signaling.

Front 242

Recombinant DNA technology

Back 242

A technology that deliberately modifies the genetic structure of an organism to create novel products, microbes, animals, plants, and viruses. Also known as genetic engineering.

Front 243

Reversible Reaction

Back 243

In reversible reactions the reactants and the products can be converted back and forth. These reversible reactions are symbolized with a double arrow, each pointing in opposite directions

Front 244

Ribosome

Back 244

An internal component of a biological cell whose function is to assemble the twenty specific amino acid molecules to form the particular protein molecule determined by the nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule.

Front 245

Rickettsias

Back 245

A medically important family of bacteria, commonly carried by ticks, lice and fleas. Significant cause of important emerging diseases.

Front 246

RNA

Back 246

The nucleic acid responsible for carrying out the hereditary program transmitted by an organism's DNA

Front 247

Run and Tumble

Back 247

describes the way that certain bacteria forage for nutrients, They swim straight (run) until they detect a decrease in nutrient concentration, then they spin around (stumble) to face a new direction and try again,

Front 248

Salts

Back 248

Ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. they are composed of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively charged ions) so that the product is electrically neutral (without a net charge)

Front 249

Saprobe

Back 249

A microbe that decomposes organic remains from dead organisms. Also known as a saprophyte of saprotroph

Front 250

Sarcodina
(Amoeboid)

Back 250

a subphylum of protozoans of the phylum Sarcomastigophoro that includes protozoans forming pseudopodia which ordinarily serve as organs for locomotion and taking food.

Front 251

Scientific Method

Back 251

Principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of knowledge, involving the recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of a hypothesis.

Front 252

Selective Permeability

Back 252

A feature and a function of the plasma membrane that is essential to maintain homeostasis by regulating the passage of some substances while preventing others from entering the cell.

Front 253

Slime Layer

Back 253

An irregular, diffuse, unorganized form of glycocalyx in bacterial cells, comprised mostly of exopolysaccharides, glycoproteins, and glycolipids, and renders protection from dessication, loss of nutrients, and chemical insult.
Bacterial cells with slime layer have the capacity to survive sterilization by means of chlorine, iodine, and so on, but not decontamination by autoclaving or by flushing with boiling water.

Front 254

Solute

Back 254

A substance that is uniformly dispersed in a dissolving medium or solvent.

Front 255

Solution

Back 255

A mixture of one or more substances (solutes) that cannot be separated by filtration or ordinary settling

Front 256

Solvent

Back 256

A dissolving medium. The most widely used solvent is water since it dissolves many substances. "the universal solvent"

Front 257

Spirilla

Back 257

A genus of large, aerobic, gram negative bacteria having an elongated spiral form and a tuft of flagella

Front 258

Spirochete

Back 258

Any of various slender, spiral motile bacteria of the order spirochaetales, many of which are pathogenic, causing syphilis, relapsing fever, yaws and other diseases

Front 259

Spontaneous Generation

Back 259

The supposed development of living organisms from nonliving matter. They theory was easily shown to be false but was not fully discredited until the mid-19th century with the demonstration of the existence and reproduction of microorganisms, mot notably by Louis Pasteur.

Front 260

Steroids

Back 260

Any of a large group of fat-soluble organic compounds, as the sterols, bile acids and sex hormones, most of which have specific physiological action.

Front 261

Synthesis reactions

Back 261

A combination of two or more substances and a compound results

Front 262

Taxis

Back 262

Oriented movement of a motile organism in response to an external stimulus, moving forward or away from light

Front 263

Taxonomy

Back 263

The science dealing with the description, naming, identification and classification of organisms

Front 264

Teichoic Acid

Back 264

One of two types of polymers present in a gram-positive bacteria, especially in the cell walls

Front 265

Theory

Back 265

A plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain natural phenomena.

Front 266

Tree of Life

Back 266

a tree based on visible morphological characteristics including the different stages of organism development.

Front 267

Trematodes

Back 267

a category of helminth, also known as flatworm or fluke

Front 268

Trigylceride

Back 268

A type of lipid composed of glycerol molecule bound to three fatty acids

Front 269

Ubiquitous

Back 269

Present everywhere at the same time

Front 270

Valence

Back 270

the combining power of an atom based upon the number of electrons it can either take on or give up

Front 271

Vesicles

Back 271

a blister characterized by a thin-skinned, elevated, superficial pocket filled with serum

Front 272

Virio

Back 272

a curved, rod shaped bacterial cell

Front 273

Viruses

Back 273

Microscopic, acellular agent composed of pieces of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. Not a living organism, requires a host cell in order to regenerate.

Front 274

Web of life

Back 274

the idea that all organisms arose from a single common ancestor and that rather than have branches of species, some traits will interlink between species like a web

Front 275

Acetyl-CoA

Back 275

Activated Acetate, an important molecule in the metabolism processes of the human body. Composed of two carbon atoms, this coenzyme is the metabolic product of the oxidation of several amino acids, pyruvate and fatty acids. It is then broken down and used by the body for energy production. This proces is called the Krebs cycle.

Front 276

Acidophiles

Back 276

microorganisms that can live in acidic environments, The acidic environments that acidophile can live in have a pH level of 1-5. Acidophile are able to survive in this acid habitat because cells pump out poisonous hydrogen ions fast enough not to damage the DNA inside the nucleus. If they could not pump out the hydrogen ions, they would not be able to survive.

Front 277

Activation energy

Back 277

Activation energy is the energy that must be overcome in order for a chemical reaction to occur

Front 278

Active site

Back 278

the part of an enzyme where substrates bind and undergo a chemical reaction

Front 279

active transport

Back 279

the movement of a chemical substance through a gradient of concentration or electrical potential in the direction opposite to normal diffusion, requiring the expenditure of energy

Front 280

Aerotolerant anaerobe

Back 280

A microorganism that grows best in the absence of oxygen, but is not harmed by oxygen's presence either.

Front 281

Alcohol

Back 281

an organic chemical containing one or more hydroxyl groups. Alcohols can be liquids, semisolids or solids at room temperature

Front 282

Anaerobic

Back 282

Grows best, or exclusively in the absence of oxygen

Front 283

Antagonism

Back 283

Organisms that are hostile to each other. They may take actions that inhibit or destroy another organism

Front 284

Barophiles

Back 284

a microorganism that thrives under high pressure (hydrostatic)

Front 285

Binary fission

Back 285

the formation of two new cells of approximately equal size as the result of parent cell division

Front 286

Biofilms

Back 286

a mixture of microorganisms growing together on the surface of a habitat

Front 287

Catalyst

Back 287

a substance that alters the rate of a reaction without being consumed or permanently changed by it

Front 288

Chemiosmosis

Back 288

the generation of a concentration gradient of hydrogen ions by the pumping of hydrogen ions to the outer side of the membrane during electron transport

Front 289

Chemoautotrophs

Back 289

An organism that relies upon inorganic chemicals for its energy and carbon dioxide for its carbon

Front 290

Chemoheterotrophs

Back 290

an organism that gets their energy from something that has already gotten organic carbon from the environment (example- humans)

Front 291

Chemotrophs

Back 291

organism that oxidizes compounds to feed on nutrients. Gets their carbon from organic sources

Front 292

Citrate

Back 292

an intermediate in the Krebs cycle. After the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex forms acetyl-CoA from pyruvate and five cofactors (thiamine pyrophosphate, lipoamide, FAD< NAD+ and CoA), citrate synthase catalyzes the condensation of oxaloacetate with acetyl-CoA to form citrate. Citrate continues in the Krebs cycle via aconitase with the eventual regeneration of oxaloacetate, which can combine with another molecule of acetyl CoA and continue cycling.

Fatty Acid synthesis: Citrate can also be transported out of the mitochondria and into the cytoplasm, then be broken down into acetyl-CoA for fatty acid synthesis. Citrate is a positive modulator of this conversion, and allosterically regulates the enzyme acetyl-CoA caroxylase, which is the regulating enzyme in the coversion of acetyl-CoA into malonyl-CoA (the committment step in fatty acid synthesis). In short, citrate is transported to the cytoplasm, converted to acetyl CoA which is converted into malonyl CoA by the acetyl CoA carboxylase, which is allosterically modulated by citrate.

Front 293

Coenzyme

Back 293

A complex organic molecule, several of which are derived from vitamins (nicotinamide, riboflavin) A coenzyme operates in conjunction with an enzyme and serve as transient carriers of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions.

Front 294

Cofactor

Back 294

an enzyme accessory. it can be organic, such as coenzymes, or inorganic such as Iron, Magnesium or Zinc.

Front 295

Commensalism

Back 295

an unequal relationship in which one species derives benefit without harming the other

Front 296

Competitive Inhibition

Back 296

control process that relies on the ability of metabolic analogs to control microbial growth by successfully competing with a necessary enzyme to halt the growth of bacterial cells.

Front 297

Electron Carrier Molecules

Back 297

A molecule that accepts electrons from electron donors and donates them to electron acceptors, creating an energy-producing electron transport chain that occurs in respiration or photosynthesis.

Front 298

electron transfer

Back 298

simply, the transfer of electrons from one molecular entity to another

Front 299

electron transport system

Back 299

the major manner in which ATP is produced. Electrons are brought in by NADH from the Krebs cycle and are passed along a series of compounds in the mitochondrial inner cellular space of eukaryotes, the chloroplasts of photosynthetic organisms, and the cell membrane of bacteria. Each adjacent pair of compounds undergoes a redox reaction, moving the electrons along the chain and simultaneously moving hydrogen protons out and along the outside of the membrane, ultimately driving the synthesis of ATP.

Front 300

Endocytosis

Back 300

The process whereby solid and liquid materials are taken into the cell through membrane invagination and engulfment into a vesicle

Front 301

Enzyme

Back 301

a protein that works as a catalyst to facilitate metabolic reactions

Front 302

Enzyme Specificity

Back 302

Because of the unique features of tertiary polypeptide binding, enzymes are usually very specific about which substrate they will act on. Often referred to as a "lock and key" fit, their active site will only accept the shape of a particular substrate

Front 303

enzyme-substrate complex

Back 303

When the substrate or substrates (reactants) lock into the binding site of the enzyme, a new, temporary substance known as the enzyme-substrate complex is formed. The appropriate reactions occur on the substrate, often with the aid of a cofactor, and a product is formed and released. Then the original enzyme is free to attach other substrates and repeat this actions, each time creating a new temporary enzyme-substrate complex

Front 304

Exponential (log) phase

Back 304

the period of maximum growth rate and is characterized by cell doubling. The number of new bacteria appearing per unit time is proportional to the present population. If growth is not limited, doubling will continue at a constant rate so both the number of cells and the rate of population increase doubles with each consecutive time period.

Front 305

Extreme Thermophiles

Back 305

(heat loving) a microorganism that thrives at extreme temperatures of 80-15 degrees Celcius. Can be found in geothermally heated regions of the Earth such as hot springs, deep sea hydrothermal vents, and as well as decaying plant matter such as peat bogs and compost

Front 306

Facilitated Diffusion

Back 306

The passive movement of a substance across a plasma membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration utilizing specialized carrier proteins.

Front 307

Facultative anaerobe

Back 307

an organism, usually a bacteria, that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but is also capable of switching to fermentation. Oxygen is NOT necessary for a facultative anaerobe to grow. Pertaining to the capacity of microbes to adapt or adjust to variations. Examples: Staphylococcus, fungi, including yeasts

Front 308

FADH2/FAD

Back 308

FAD- a riboflavin-containing hydrogen Acceptor molecule in the Krebs cycle of plant respiration and a coenzyme of some oxidation-reduction enzymes.
FAD2- after FAD molecule accepts electrons it becomes a FAD2 molecule and carry and donate the electrons down the electron transport chain to produce ATP, after this is complete the molecules turns back into FAD and returns to the Krebs cycle.

Front 309

Fermentation

Back 309

The extraction of energy through anaerobic degradation of substrates into simpler, reduced metabolites. In large industrial processes, fermantation can mean any use of microbial metabolism to manufacture organic chemicals or other products (example: yeast carries out fermentation in the production of ethanol in beers, wines and other alcoholic drinks and it also occurs in mammalian muscle during periods of intense exercise where oxygen supply becomes limited, resulting in the creation of lactic acid.

Front 310

Glucose

Back 310

A monossachride sugar found in both plant and animal tissues. Used to form ATP for cell energy

Front 311

Glycolysis

Back 311

the catabolism of carbohydrates, such as glucose and glycogen, by enzymes with the release of energy and the production of lactic or pyruvic acid

Front 312

Group Translocation

Back 312

a mechanism utilized by bacteria to transport a compound into their cell by first allowing the compound to bind with protein on the cell surface followed by altering its chemical structure during its passage across the membrane

Front 313

Halophile

Back 313

Archaebacteria living in extremely salty environments such as the ocean and even in solid salt crystals

Front 314

Heterotrophs

Back 314

an organism that is unable to synthesize its own organic carbon-based compounds from inorganic sources, hence, feeds on organic matter produced by, or available in other organisms.

Front 315

Hypertonic

Back 315

Pertaining to a solution with higher solute concentration compared with another. For example, if the extracellular fluid has greater amounts of solutes than the cytoplasm, the fluid is said to be hypertonic.

Front 316

Lithoautotrophs

Back 316

these are bacteria that rely on inorganic materials to supply their nutritional needs, and are sometimes referred to as "chemoautotrophs" although not always, these are very often extremophiles

Front 317

Macronutrients

Back 317

Chemical substance required in large quantities: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphate, Sulfur, Potassium, Iodine, Nitrogen, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and Chloride

Front 318

Mesophiles

Back 318

Microorganisms that grow at intermediate temperatures. Some examples: staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, and Yersinia enterocoiytica

Front 319

Metabolic pathway

Back 319

The term given to the various processes gone through in order for a cell to undergo metabolism. Depending on what the reaction is, these reactions may be moved along using an enzyme as a catalyst. Such enzymes are given certain controls in order to determine how the reaction should proceed.

Front 320

Metabolism

Back 320

A general term for the totality of chemical and physical processes occurring in a cell

Front 321

Methanogens

Back 321

Methane producers. Archaea that convert CO2 and H2 into methane gas (CH4)

Front 322

Microaerophile

Back 322

A microbe that does not grow at normal atmospheric concentrations of oxygen but requires a small amount of it in metabolism. Most organisms in this category live in a habitat that provides small amounts of oxygen but is not directly exposed to the atmosphere

Front 323

Micronutrients

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Trace elements, present in much smaller amounts are are involved in enzyme function and maintenance of protein structure. Varies greatly depending on the organism and function.

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Minimum, Maximum and Optimum Growth Temperatures

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The range of temperatures for the growth of a given microbial species, expressed as the three cardinal temperatures

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Mutualism

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When organisms live in an obligatory but mutually beneficial relationship

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NAD/NADH

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abbreviations for the oxidized/reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, an electron carrier. Also known as the vitamin niacin

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Negative feedback inhibition

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It is like a thermostat. When it is cold, the thermostat turns on a heater which produces heat. heat causes the thermostat to turn off the heat

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Noncompetitive Inhibition

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Form of enzyme inhibition that involves binding of a regulatory molecule to a site other than the active site.

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Obligate Aerobe

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an organism that cannot grow without oxygen. Most fungi and protozoan as well as many bacteria have to have oxygen in their metabolism.

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Obligate Anaerobe

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Lack the enzyme for processing toxic oxygen, they cannot tolerate any free oxygen in the immediate environment and will die if exposed to it

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Osmosis

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the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane in the direction of lower water concentration.

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Oxaloacetate

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A 4-carbon compound that reacts with acetyl CoA in the Krebs cycle to form a 6-carbon compound,

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Oxidation-reduction Reactions
Redox Reaction

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Redox reactions, in which paired sets of molecules participate in electron transfers

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Oxidative Phosphorylation

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The synthesis of ATP using energy given off during the electron transport phase of respiration

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Parasites

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An organism that lives on or within another organism (the host) from which it obtains nutrients and enjoys protection. The parasite produces some degree of harm in the host. An organism that grows, feeds and is sheltered in another while doing nothing in return.

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Pathogens

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an agent (usually a virus, bacterium, fungus, protozoa, or helminth) that causes disease. An agent that causes infection or disease, especially a microorganism such as bacterium or protozoan, or a virus.

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pH

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The negative log of the hydrogen ion (proton) concentration in a solution. As proton concentration goes up, pH goes down. A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, numerically equal to 7 for neutral solutions, increasing with increasing alkalinity and decreasing with increasing acidity. The pH scale commonly in use ranges from 0 to 14

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phagocytosis

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the engulfing and ingestion of bacteria or other foreign bodies by phagocytes. The process by which a cell, such as a white blood cell, ingests microorganisms, other cells, and foreign particles. The action of phagocytes ingesting and destroying cells

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Phototroph

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an organism that obtains energy from sunlight for the synthesis of organic compounds. An organism that manufactures its own food from inorganic substances using light for energy. Green plants, certain algae and photosynthetic bacteria are phototrophs

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Pinocytosis

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the engulfment or endocytosis of liquids by extensions of the cell membrane creating a vesicle

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Product

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in a chemical reaction, the substance that is left after a reaction is complete

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Proton Gradient

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May be used as an intermediate energy source for heat and flagellar rotation. It results from the higher concentration of protons outside the inner membrane of the mitochondria than inside the membrane, It becomes the driving force behind ATP synthesis/hydrolysis

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Proton Pump

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integral membrane protein that is capable of moving protons across a cell membrane, mitochondrion, and other organelles

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Quorum Sensing

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The ability of bacteria to regulate their gene expression in response to sensing bacterial density

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Regulatory Site (Allosteric)

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the location on an enzyme where a certain substance can bind and block the enzymes activity

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Satallitism

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a classic commensal interaction between microorganisms. One member provides nutritional or protective factors needed by the other

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Simple diffusion

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Limited to small nonpolar molecules like oxygen or lipid-soluble molecules that may pass through the membranes. Goes from high concentration to low concentration

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Stationary Phase

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The population enters a survival mode in which cells stop growing or grow slowly. Death balances out the rate of multiplication, caused by depleted nutrients and oxygen and other biochemical pollutants

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Symbiosis

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the living together of two dissimilar organisms, as in mutualism, commensalism, amensalism, or parasitism. Win/Win situation for both organisms

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Synergism

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the coordinated or correlated action by two or more drugs or microbes that results in a heightened response or greater activity

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Terminal electron Acceptor

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The terminal step in aerobic respiration. During this step oxygen accepts the electrons and is catalyzed by cytochrome oxidase. This is a large enzyme and is specifically adapted to receive electrons from cytochrome, and pick up hydrogens from the solution, and react with oxygen to form a molecule of water. Although more complex, it looks like this:
(2H+) + (2e-) + ((1/2)O2)= H20

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Thermophiles

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An organism, especially bacterium or plant, that thrives under hot temperatures. Most thermophiles can be catagorized as archaea

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Abcess

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An abcess is an enclosed collection of liquefied tissue, known as pus, somewhere in the body. It is the result of the body's defensive reaction to foreign material

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Acquired (specific) immunity

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Acquired immunity is the immunity acquired by infection or vaccination (active immunity) or by the transfer of antibody or lymphocytes from an immune donor (passive immunity). Acquired immunity is in contrast to innate immunity (natural immunity).

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Acute VS Chronic infection

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Acute infections are characterized by rapid onset and short duration. Chronic infections persist over a long period of time

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Adhesion

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Adhesion is the tendency of dissimilar particles and/or surfaces to cling to one another. In medicine, adhesions are fibrous bands that form between tissues and organs, often as a result of injury during surgery

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Aerosol

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Aerosol is a colloid suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas

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Agglutination

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Aggluntination is the clumping of particles. And example would be the clumping of cells such as bacteria or red blood cells in the presence of an antibody. The antibody or other molecule binds multiple particles and joins them, creating a large complex.

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Agranulocytes

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are a category of white blood cells characterized by the absence of granules in their cytoplasm. There are two types of agranulocytes they are lymphocytes and monocytes.

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Antibodies

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Antibodies are our molecuolar watchdogs, waiting and watching for viruses, bacteria and other unwelcome visitors. Antibodies bind to a bacterial surface, they act as markers alerting the other powerful defensive mechanisms available in the immune system.

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Antibody titer

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An antibody titer is a measurement of how much antibody an organism has produced that recognizes a particular epitope, expressed as the greatest dilution that still gives a positive result. ELISA is a common means of determining antibody titers.

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Antigen

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An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against it. The substance maybe from the environment or formed within the body The immune system will kill or neutralize any antigen that is recognized as a foreign and potentially harmful invader.

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Antigen binding site

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Specialized ends of antibodies that bind specific antigens

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Antigen-presenting cell (APC)

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A macrophage or dendritic cell that ingests and degrades an antigen and subsequently places the antigenic determinant molecules on its surface for recognition by CD4 T lymphocytes

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Antiphagocytic factors
(factor in virulence)

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antigens and/or enzymes produced by pathogens to adhere & integrate into the hosts immune system, used to get into cells & obtain nutrition from host cells

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Antiserum

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Antibody-rich serum derived from the blood of animals (deliberately immunized against infectious or toxic antigen) or from people who have recovered from specific infections.

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Artificially acquired active immunity

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Induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains the antigen. A vaccine stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of the disease.
A short-term immunization by the injection of antibodies

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Asymptomatic
(subclinical infection)

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Infection a patient may carry for a disease or infection, but experiences no symptoms, if it fails to show the noticeable symptoms which is usually associated with the disease

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Asymptomatic Carriers

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A person with an inapparent infection who shows no symptoms of being infected yet is able to pass the disease agent on to others.

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B Cell Activation

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White blood cell that recognizes plasma cells and antibodies in the body, activated by T cells, pathogens and antibodies

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B Cells
(B Lymphocytes)

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white blood cells that gfive rise to plasma cells and antibodies

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Bacteremia

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Presence of viablebacteria in circulating blood

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Basophil

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A motile polymorphonuclear (contain cytoplasmic granules) leukocyte that binds IgE (immunoglobulin E, antibody). The basophil contains mediators for anaphylaxis & atopy. Responsible for allergic reactions and allergic asthma

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Biological Vector

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An animal that not only transports an infectious agent but plays a role in the life cycle of the pathogen, servicing as a site in which it can multiply or complete its life cycle. It is usually an alternate host to the pathogen

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Capsule

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In bacteria, loose gel like covering or slime made chiefly of polysaccharides This layer is protective and can be associated with virulence

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Cell-mediated Immunity

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The type of immune responses brought about by T Cells, such as cytotoxic and helper effects

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Chemical Mediators

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Small molecules that are released during inflammation and specific immune reactions that allow communication between the cells of the immune system and facilitate surveillance, recognition, and attack

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Chemokines

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Chemical mediators that stimulate the movement and migration of white blood cells

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Chronic Carrier

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An individual who shelters an infectious agent for a long period after recovery because of the latency of the infectious agent

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Clonal Expansion

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The multiplication of a particular lymphocyte creates a clone, or group of genetically identical cells, some of which are memory cells that will ensure future reactiveness against that antigen.

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Clonal Selection

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A conceptual explanation for the development of lymphocyte specificity and variety during immune maturation

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Communicable disease

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When an infected host can transmit the infectious agent to another host and establish infection in that host

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Complement System

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Named for its property of "complementing" immune reactions, consists of at least 26 blood proteins that work in concert to destroy bacteria and certain viruses

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Contact Transmission

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Some type of contact must occur between the skin or mucous membranes of the infected person and the new infectee

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Contagious disease

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An agent that is highly communicable, especially through direct contact

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Cytokines

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A chemical substance produced y white blood cells and tissue cells that regulate development inflammation and immunity

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Cytotoxic T Cells (Tc)

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lead to the destruction of infected host cells and other "foreign" cells

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Dendritic Cells

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A large, antigen-processing cell characterized by long, branch like extensions of the cell membrane

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Diapedesis

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The migration of intact blood cells between endothelial cells of a blood vessel such as a venule

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Droplet

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Droplets produced by mucus and saliva sprayed while sneezing or coughing

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Edema

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The accumulation of excess fluid in cells, tissues, or serous cavities. Also called swelling

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Endemic

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A native disease that prevails continuously in a geographic region

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Endogenous Infection

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Originating or produced within an organism or one of it's parts

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Endotoxin

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A bacterial toxin that is not ordinarily released (as is exotoxin). Endotoxin is composed of a phospholipid-polysaccharide complex that is an integral part of gram-negative bacterial cell wall. Endotoxins can cause severe shock and fever

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Focal Infection

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A bacterial infection localized in a specific part of the body, such as the tonsils, that may spread to another part of the body. occurs when an infectious agent from a localized infection breaks loose and is carried by the circulation system to other tissues.

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Fomite

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Any inanimate object or substance capable of carrying infectious organisms, hence transferring them from one individual to another A fomite can be anything, such as a doorknob, hair, washcloth, bed sheet or mop head.

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Granulocytes

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A category of white blood cells (leukocytes) characterized by the presense of granules in their cytoplasm, usually identified by a Wright stain. Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Other white blood cells that are not granulocytes are mainly lymphocytes and monocytes

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Granuloma

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A solid mass or nobule of inflammatory tissue containing modified macrophages and lymphocytes. usually a chronic pathologic process of diseases such as tuberculosis or syphilis.

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Herd Immunity

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A form of immunity that occurs when the vaccination of a significant portion of a population (or herd) provides a measure of protection for individuals who have not developed immunity. Herd immunity theory proposes that, in contagious diseases that are transmitted from individual to individual, chains of infection are likely to be disrupted when large numbers of a population are immune or less susceptible to the disease. The greater the proportion of individuals who are resistant, the smaller the probability that a susceptible individual will come into contact with an infectious individual.

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Histamine

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A cytokine released when mast cells and basophils release their granules. An important mediator of allergy, its effects include smooth muscle contraction., increased vascular permeability and increase mucus secretion. The increased vascular permeability directly affects inflammation by allowing blood fluids (and leukocytes) to leak through vessels into the surrounding tissue. Histamines indirectly affect inflammation by triggering the release of cytokines from neighboring leukocytes which in turn increase the inflammatory response

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Horizontal Infection Transmission

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Horizontal means that the disease is transferred in a population from one infected individual to another of the same species. Horizontal transmission usually means transmission from one person to another in a variety of ways:
- droplet contact: coughing or sneezing on another person
- direct physical contact: touching an infected person, including sexual contact
-Indirect physical contact- touching a contaminated surface
-Airborne Transmission- if the microorganism can remain in the air for long periods
-Fecal-Oral Transmission: usually from contaminate food or water sources

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Humoral Immunity

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The aspect of immunity which is mediated by antibodies secreted from B-cells, as opposed to "cell-mediated" immunity (which involves T-cells). Secreted antibodies bind to antigens on the surfaces of invading microbes (such as viruses or bacteria), which flags them for destruction. Humoral immunity is so named because it involves substances found in the humors or body fluids.

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Hypothalamus

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A portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system. The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep and circadian cycles.

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Immunological memory

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The residual memory of an infection or a vaccination which is carried in the army of white blood cells which were organized and cloned specifcally to combat the antigens. Once the infection is eliminated, so are most of the WBC's, however a small number, a "memory", are kept in the organism ready to recognize and mobilize a rapid attack if ever again that particular antigen presents itself

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Incidence

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The number of new cases of a disease occurring during a period of time

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Indirect Transmission

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the passing of an infectious agent from an infected hist to another host by means of an intermediate conveyor, which could be animate or inanimate

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Infection

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the entry, establishment and multiplication of pathogenic organisms within a host

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Infectious dose

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The amount of pathogen (measured in number of microorganisms) required to cause an infection in the host. Usually it varies according to the pathogenic agent and the consumer's age and overall health.

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Inflammation

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A natural, nonspecific response to tissue injury that protects the host from further damage. it stimulates immune reactivity and blocks the spread of an infectious agent.

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Innate (non-specific) Immunity

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First line of defense, comprise the cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms in a non-specific manner. this means that the cells of the innate system recognize and respond to pathogens in a generic way, but unlike the adaptive immune system, it does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host. Innate immune systems provide immediate defense against infection, and are found in all classes of plant and animal life.

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Interferon

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Natural human chemical that inhibits viral replication. used therapeutically to combat viral infections and cancer.

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Interleukins

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A class of chemicals released from host cells that have potent effects on immunity.

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Intoxication

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Poisoning that results from the introduction of a toxin into body tissues through ingestion or injection

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Koch's Postulates

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A procedure to establish the specific cause of disease. In all cases of infections:
- The agent must be found
- Inoculations of a pure culture must reproduce the same disease in animals
- the agent must again be present in the experimental animal
- a pure culture must again be obtained

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Latency

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The state of being inactive. Example: a latent virus or latent infection.
A wound, injury, or some other pathologic change in tissues

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Leukocytosis

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An abnormally large number of leukocytes in the blood, which can be indicative of acute infection

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Leukopenia

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A lower than normal leukocyte count in the blood, which can be indicative of blood infection or disease

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Local infection

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Occurs when a microbe enters a specific tissue, infects it, and remains confined there

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Lymph Nodes

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Small, encapsulated, bean-shaped organs specialized for filtering out materials that have entered the lymph and providing appropriate cells and niches for immune reactions. major aggregations of lymph nodes occur in the loose connective tissue of the armpit, groin and neck and in clusters along the lymphatic channels and large blood vessels of the abdominal and thoracic cavities

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Lymphadenitis

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Inflammation of one or more lymph nodes. Also called lymphadenopathy

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Lymphatic fluid

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A plasma-like liquid carried by the lymphatic circulation, it is made up of water, dissolved salts, and 2-5% protein (especially antibodies and albumin). it transports numerous white blood cells, especially lymphocytes and materials such as fats, cellular debris, and infectious agents that have gained access to the tissue spaces

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Lymphatic System

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A system of vessels and organs that serve as sites for development of immune cells and immune reactions. it includes spleen, thymus, lymph noes and GALT

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Lymphatic Vessels

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The system of vessels that transports lymph. They are constructed similar to thin walled veins. They are found in particularly high numbers in the hands, feet and around the areola of the breast. they are in every part of the body except the central nervous system.

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Lymphocytes

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The second most common form of white blood cell

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Lysosome

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A cytoplasmic organelle containing lysozyme and other hydrolytic enzymes

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Lysozyme

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An enzyme found in sweat, tears, and saliva that breaks down bacterial peptidoglycan

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Macrophages

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White blood cells that are derived from a monocyte that leaves the circulation and enters tissues. These cells are important in nonspecific phagocytosis and in regulating, stimulating and cleaning up after immune responses

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Mast Cells

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A nonmotile connective tissue cell implanted along capillaries, especially in the lungs, skin, gastrointestinal tract and genitourinary tract. Like a basophil, it's granules store mediators of allergy.

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Pandemic

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A disease afflicting an increased proportion of the population over a wide geographic area (often worldwide)

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Passive Carriers

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People who transfer a pathogen without ever being infected by it. Example: a health care worker who doesn't wash their hands adequately between patients

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Pathogen

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A disease causing agent

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Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPS)

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Microbial products which stimulate innate immunity

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Pathogenicity

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The disease-producing capacity of a pathogen

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Pathology

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The study of the origin, nature and course of diseases

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Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)

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A class of innate immune response-expressed proteins that respond to PAMP's and endogenous stress signals

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Perforin

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A protein produced y killer cells of the immune system that causes disintegration of targeted cells by forming pores in their membranes

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Phagocytes

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Cells that ingest and destroy foreign particle such as bacteria and cell debris

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Sequelae

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Pathological condition resulting from a disease, injury or other trauma. Morbid complication that follows a disease. Long term or permanent damage to tissues or organs. Example: meningitis-deafness; Strep Throat- Rheumatic heart Disease; Lyme Disease- arthritis; Polio-paralysis

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Shivering

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Non-productive muscle activity to help raise body temperature to help fight off infection or virus

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Signs

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Any abnormality uncovered upon physical diagnosis that indicates the presence of disease. A sign is an objective assessment of disease, as opposed to a symptom, which is the subjective assessment perceived by the patient

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Specificity

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In immunity, the concept that some parts of the immune system only react with antigens that originally activated them

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Spleen

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Organ found in virtually all vertebrate animals with regenerative capabilities and has important roles in regard to red blood cells (also referred to as erythrocytes) and the immune system. In humans, it is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood in case of hemorrhagic shock while also recycling iron.

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Sporadic

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When a disease is sporadic, occasional cases are reported at irregular intervals in random locales. Example: Diptheria and tetanus are reported sporadically in the US (less than 50 cases per year)

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Symptoms

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The subjective evidence of infection and disease as perceived by the patient. Signs and symptoms go hand in hand in diagnosing. Signs are more precise than symptoms, though both can have the same underlying cause. Example: Streptococcal infection might produce a sore throat (symptom) and inflamed pharynx (sign)

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Syndrome

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The collection of signs and symptoms that, taken together, paint a portrait of a disease