I/o Psychology

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Highest validity tests for personnel selection

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cognitive ability and job knowledge tests

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Lowest validity tests for personnel selection

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Interest tests

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Incremental validity in personnel selection

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affected by the base rate (proportion of current employees considered successful), selection ratio (% of applicants to be hired); the measures validity coeffecient (criterion-related validity) can be included by using the Taylor-Russell tables

subtract the base rate from the positive hit rate (the proportion of employees hired with the new selection test who are successful on the job)

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personnel psychology

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related to evaluating, selecting and training workers
job analysis, performance appraisal, career counseling, etc

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organizational psychology

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individual and group processes within an organization and factors that affect the outcomes such as job satisfaction, motivation, work effectiveness, quality of work life

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engineering psychology

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AKA human factors and ergonomics
deals with the relationships between workers and work context
work schedules, job burnout, accidents

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aptitude

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a persons potential

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achievement

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how much content has been mastered in a given area

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Hollands Personality and Environmental Typology
examines personality factors or stages in career development?

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personality

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Supers Career and Life Development Theory
examines personality factors or stages in career development?

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stages

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criterion measures

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measures of job performance

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Personnel Comparison System

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subjective measure
can be compared to very other employee (paired)
or forced into a %ile range (forced distribution)

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critical incidents

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subjective measure
behaviors associated with very good/bad job performance are placed on a likert scale and each # is anchored with descriptions

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Behaviorally anchored rating scale

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BARS - subjective measure
dimensions of job performance and each # of the likert scale is anchored with a description
the development of BARS has several steps and several contributors

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Behavioral Observation Scales

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subjective measure
like the BARS, but employees are rated on how often they perform a behavior

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Forced Choice Checklist

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subjective measure
the rater is presented with a series of statements grouped so that each statement is similar in terms of social desirability and ability to distinguish b/w good and poor employees

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Halo effect

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form of rater bias
tendency to judge all aspects of a persons behavior based on a single attribute or characteristic
ex - high on cooperation = high on all other dimensions
low on cooperation = low on all other dimensions

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central tendency bias

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rater bias
the tendency to assign average ratings to all ratee's

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leniency bias

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rater bias
tendency to assign all ratee's a high score

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strictness bias

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tendency to assign all ratee's a low score

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contrast effect

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rater bias
rating based on comparisons to the scores of others; i.e. if the first 3 ratees are very poor, the fourth might be rated highly even though they are actually only mediocre

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best solution to rater bias

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training
frame of reference training helps raters learn to assess the many components of job performance

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the prediction accuracy of general mental ability tests increases as ...

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job complexity increases

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are work samples of motor skills or verbal skills better predictors of job performance?

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motor

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KSAPS

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selection of personnel requires determining if they have the:
knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics required for the job

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adverse impact can be mathematically determined using the ...

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80% or 4/5 rule
for example, if 60% of male applicants are hired, then 48% of female applications should be hired (.80x.60=.48). If less than 48% are hired adverse impact is occurring.

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multiple cutoff

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selection procedure where, using multiple criterion's, if an applicant scores below any cutoff they are not hired, regardless of their scores on the other criterion,
Thus, unlike multiple regression, a low score on one criterion cannot be compensator for with a high score on others

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multiple hurdles

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similar to multiple cutoff but criterion are administered one at a time, and the applicant must meet the cutoff on one before the next is administered. Saves time and money

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steps in training program development

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needs analysis
program design
program evaluation

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needs analysis

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first step in training program development
organization analysis - is training what the co. needs?
task analysis - similar to job analysis; what skills, knowledge, etc is necessary - helps develop instructional goals
person analysis - do people have deficits in areas determined from task analysis
demographic analysis - determine training needs of employees from different groups (young vs older)

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on-the-job training

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training is conducted by current employees supervising new employees as they work; may rotate through positions
likely to be less organized

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vestibule training

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providing training in a replica environment of the job
ex. a mock up assembly line or a flight simulator

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classroom training

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replica of work environment, production is not emphasized

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programmed instruction

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organized, logical sequences
paper and pencil or computer
good for things requiring rote memorization but not complex skills

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steps of program evaluation

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1. formative evaluation - internal factors that can be changed while program is in use (participant satisfaction,effectiveness, degree of learned material,
2. summative evaluations - take place after program is complete, measures effectiveness
3. cost-effectiveness

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Kirkpatrick's four levels of criteria

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reaction criteria - satisfaction, perceived relevance
learning criteria - pre/post tests
behavior criteria - impact on behavior and performance
results criteria - impact on broader organizational goals and objectives

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Phillips Return on Investment (ROI)

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encouraged to be included at each of the four Kirkpatrick levels

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Hollands Personality and Environment Typology

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RIASEC
realistic
investigative
artistic
social
enterprising
conventional

*presented in a hexagon - those closer to each other being more similar
also applied to work environments

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congruence

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Holland
degree of fit between a personality type and the work environment

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differentiation

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Holland
when a person scores high on one RIASEC dimension as opposed to all others there is a high degree of differentiation

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Hollands personality types can be measured using....

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Vocational Preference Inventory
Self-Directed Search
Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory

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Roe's fields and levels theory

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Links children’s experiences with their parents to their later occupational choice and the level they achieve within that occupation
Parenting orientation affects children's needs and personality traits that in turn influence occupational outcomes
Parenting orientations – overprotective, avoidant, acceptant
If children had to work hard during childhood to satisfy their needs they are likely to achieve a higher occupational level within their chosen field
Eight occupational fields (business, science, art, entertainment
Six occupational levels (managerial, skilled, unskilled

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Super's Career and Life Development Theory

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Career development happens in stages and each stage must be mastered for the individual to progress to the next stage

Growth (birth-15 years): the person begins to develop capacities, attitudes, interests, and needs associated with the vocational self-concept. Career-related behaviors include fantasy, play, and thinking about abilities and job requirements

Exploration (15-24 years): career choices are narrowed but not finalized. Self examination, role try-outs, and occupational exploration take place in school, leisure activities and part time work

Establishment (25-44 years): an effort is made to establish a permanent place in the chosen occupational field. Changes may occur in position, job, and employer but not occupation

Maintenance (45-64 years): represents a continuation of the established pattern. The person is concerned with maintaining the position and status established in the previous stage

Decline (65+ years): characterized by a decline in work output and eventual retirement. The person has to find non-vocational sources of satisfaction and, as a result, a medication in the self-concept is required

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Self-concept – according to Holland

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persons abilities, interests, values, personality traits, physicality etc

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Career maturity - according to Holland

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Also called career adaptability
the extent that a person has mastered the tasks of their developmental stage

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life space - according to Holland

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the variable social roles adopted throughout the life span
child, student, worker, partner, parent, citizen, homemaker, leisurite, pensioner
Depicted by the Life Career Rainbow

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Tiedeman and O’Hare’s Decision Making Model

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Based on Eriksons psychosocial theory of ego identity; they posed career-related correlates to each of Erikson’s eight psychosocial crisis resolutions over a lifespan that includes the stages of infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescence and young adulthood

Differentiation comes from the realization that an occupation is not fitting with a person’s personality. From this awareness a different choice would be considered and action eventually taken. The different choice would be considered implementation – which doesn’t always lead to a successful reintegration and the process could take place many times in the career life of an individual

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Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman’s Decision Making Model
Expansion of the earlier model

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Defined two kinds of reality – personal reality (thoughts, act, behavior or direction, that the individual feels is right for him or herself) and common reality (what “they” say you should do, ie if you don’t get a good education you can’t get a good job)

In order for individuals to enhance the development of their careers they must be aware of the two realities

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Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise

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Addresses how gender and prestige influence and limit career choice – occupational aspirations emerge as a process of elimination

Circumscription – progressive elimination of least preferred options or alternatives that occurs as children become increasingly aware of occupational differences in gender of sex-type, prestige, and then field of work

Compromise – the expansion of occupational preferences in recognition of and accommodation to external constraints encountered in implementing preferences

Four stages of cognitive development: orientation to size and power (3 years to middle adolescence), orientation to sex roles, influence of social class, introspection, and perceptiveness

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Kumboltz’s Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM)

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Career transitions result from learning experiences from planned and unplanned encounters with the people, institutions, and events in each person’s environment

Four types of influences on career decisions: genetic characteristics and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences and associative learning, task approach skills

The interaction of the four types of influencing factors results in formation of worldviews and beliefs about themselves that affect aspirations and actions

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Autocratic leadership is associated with ______________, while democratic leadership is associated with ___________________

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greater productivity
greater satisfaction

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Theory X leaders vs Theory Y leaders

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X - believes workers generally lack direction, need to be controlled coerced; consistent with scientific management
Y - believe work comes naturally and workers are generally self-directed, responsible, and require freedom and autonomy

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Fielder's Contingency Theory and definition of "favorableness"

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Leaders who describe their least preferred worker in negative terms are most effective when they can have either lots or little influence on the environment
Leaders who describe their least preferred worker in positive terms are most effective when they have a moderate degree of influence
*no single leadership style is best for all situations
Favorableness depends on relationship b/w leader and subordinates, structure of the task, ability of leader to enforce compliance (rewards and punishments): a situation I most favorable when all three are good/high

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House's Path-Goal Theory

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Workers need to perceive that their leader is helping them achieve their goals
A contingency model - subordinate production and satisfaction depends on an interaction of subordinate characteristics, env. characteristics, and leadership style

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Hersey and Blanchards Situational Theory

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4 leadership styles based on high and low task and relationship orientation. Optimal leadership style depends on job maturity of subordinates which is determined by their ability and willingness to accept responsibility
Telling, selling, participating, delegating

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Transformational vs Transactional Leadership

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Transformational: charismatic, appeal to higher order ideal and values, change focused and inspire workers to sacrifice self for the organization
Transactional: more focus on stability, rewards, punishment,

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Vroom and Yetton's Model

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contingency model based on the extent to which the leader includes subordinates in the decision making process
5 different supervisor styles (2 levels of autocratic, 2 levels of consultative, and group decision) based on the outcome a decision tree (developed by Vroom and Yetton) and 7 problem attributes

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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

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leadership is a process that is centered on the interactions between leaders and members; proposes how relationships can develop (stranger, acquaintance, partner) and that not all relationships between members and leaders are equal
encourages leaders to be aware of their attitudes
in-group and out-group dynamics

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Organizational Development

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Wide range of system based interventions that are designed to enhance individual development and improve the organizations overall effectiveness
Phases: entry, contracting, diagnosing, feedback, planning, intervention, evaluation
Methods include:
quality of work life – focus on improving the impact of the work situation on the workers motivation, satisfaction, and commitment
quality circles
organization surveys
process consultation – designed to help employees understand and alter their maladaptive interactions

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Organizational Behavior

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The formal communication networks in organizations can be described as centralized or decentralized.

Several models of individual decision-making have been distinguished: Rational-economic decision making,
Administrative decision making; Driver et al. elaborated on these models and identified 5 basic styles of decision makers

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Centralized networks

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All information flows through one person or position. Associated with greater efficiency for simple tasks

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Decentralized networks

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Information is shared freely between all employees. Associated with greater worker satisfaction and greater efficiency for complex tasks

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Rational-economic decision making

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involves weighing all alternative until the best one is found
known as "maximizing"

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Administrative decision making

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involves evaluating alternative as they become available and choosing the first one that meets a minimal level of acceptability
"satisficing"

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Driver et al. 5 basic styles of decision makers

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Decisive, flexible, heriarchic, integrative and systematic

Decision making has two key factors: the amount of information considered and the focus or number of alternatives considered
Two main phases of decision making: analyzing the situation and formulation of a solution

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Prospect theory of decision making

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Emphasizes the importance of loss aversion

Kahneman and Tversky

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Organizational justice and its dimensions

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Refers to the degree to which employees believe they are being treated fairly
Justice dimensions:
Distributive justice
Procedural justice
Interactional justice

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Distributive justice

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perceived fairness of outcomes such as hiring, performance appraisals, raise requests, layoff decisions

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Procedural justice

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refers to the perceived fairness of the process or procedure by which outcomes are allocated

most predictive of work performance

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Interactional justice

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refers to the perceptions of the interpersonal exchange between an individual and supervisor or third party

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Organizational culture

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The shared assumptions, values, norms, and tangible signs of organization members taught to new members through formal statements and informal behaviors
first level - behaviors and observable factors (office layout, dress code, etc)
second level - values (preferred behaviors)
third level - underlying assumptions

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Research on women in organizations shows that:
1. Attractive women are
2. Female leaders are more likely to use
3. Women who adopt a stereotypically male managerial style

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1. less likely to be considered qualified for a promotion than equally qualified, less attractive women
2. a participatory style of decision making
3. are likely to be judged less favorably than the men who adopt the same style

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Comparable worth

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Concern about gender equality in wages is related to the notion of comparable worth, which states that men and women who perform jobs that have equal worth should receive equal pay. Job evaluation techniques can be used to determine the values of a job in order to set wages

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Taylor's Scientific Management and its components

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Taylor was the first to apply the scientific method to jobs
Components
1. use scientific methods to determine the best methods of doing a job
2. divide jobs into their most elementary components
3. use a piece-incentive systems in which pay depends on output to motivate employees

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Assumptions of Taylors Scientific Management

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workers motivation influences performance
workers are motivated entirely by economic factors
workers need constant supervision

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Current views of bureaucratic environments

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rigid and inefficient
associated with lower employee satisfaction

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Human Relations Approach

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Assumes that worker performance is affected primarily by social factors including attitudes toward supervisors and co-workers and informal group norms

Studies in this area led to the discovery of the Hawthorne effect

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Origins of the Hawthorne effect

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A major contributor to the human relations approach was the research conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in the late ‘20’s and ‘30’s. These studies began with an examination of the effects of illumination and other environmental variables on productivity. But the researchers found out that regardless of environmental manipulations, productivity improved.

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Systems Approach

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An organization is an open system that gets input from both within and without
Changes in one part of the organization affect all other parts
The whole organization is an entity rather than the sum of its constituent parts

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Systems/Situational/contingency approaches share the following assumptions:

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Workers tend to have diverse needs
Organizations vary in terms of structure, culture, and other characteristics, and as a result
There is no one managerial style that will work for all people and organizations at all times

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Theory Z

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Combines the best aspects of the traditional Japanese (“Theory J”) management style and the traditional American philosophy (“Theory A”)
From J - consensual decision making, slow promotion, and holistic knowledge of the organization
From A – supports individual responsibility
Middle ground of both: also emphasizes long-term (rather than short or lifelong) employment and a moderately specialized career path

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Total Quality Management

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Usually involves changes in the organizations structure, culture, and job characteristics. Includes skill variety, task variety, autonomy, participation, empowerment, task significance, feedback
– adopted from Japanese influences

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Consideration leaders

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Person-oriented and focused on the human relation aspects of supervision. Not mutually exclusive from structure leaders

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Initiating Structure leaders

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Task oriented and focused on setting goals, ensuring the subordinates follow rules, and clarifying roles.
Not mutually exclusive from Consideration leaders

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organizational change strategies

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empirical-rational - information focused
normative-reeducative - focused on social norms
power-coercive - focused on reward/punishment

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Job Characteristics Model

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Worker motivation and satisfaction are affected by the presence or absence of 5 job characteristics:
Skill, variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback

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goal setting theory

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a cognitive theory of motivation
people are motivated to work towards goals when they have consciously accepted the goals
acceptance
goal specificity
performance feedback

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equity theory

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a cognitive theory of motivation
workers compare their input/output to that of others
if a situation is perceived as inequitable motivation to restore equity occurs
based on Social Comparison Theory

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expectancy theory

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a cognitive theory of motivation
motivation is a function of three factors
1) the belief that effort will result in successful performance (expectancy)
2) successful performance will lead to certain outcomes (instrumentability)
3) the desirability of those outcomes (valence)

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reinforcement theories of motivation

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one theory attributes motivation to the methods of operant conditioning (motivation depends on the degree to which effort is externally reinforced)
another theory, Deci's model of intrinsic motivation, posits that pride, satisfaction, etc are more important and that external reinforces can even be damaging

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job satisfaction

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pay is positively correlated with satisfaction but it depends if they perceive their pay as fair
age is positively correlated with satisfaction
satisfaction has a moderate negative correlation with absenteeism and turnover (stronger for turnover)
weak correlation between satisfaction and performance

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organizational commitment

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the extent to which a worker identifies with the organization and is willing to help it achieve its goals
negative correlation with absenteeism and turnover

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Motivation

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P = f(AxM)  performance is a function of ability and motivation, ability may be more important
P = performance, A = ability, M = motivation

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criterion-related validity

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the correlation between scores on the test and scores on some outcome measure of performance or productivity
related to incremental validity