I/o Final

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Organizational structure

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refers to the arrangement of positions in an organization and the authority and responsibility relationships among them. For example, the director of operations, marketing specialist, and shipping clerk

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chain of command

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the number of authority levels in an organization

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span of control

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the number of workers who must report to a single supervisor

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functional structure

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divides the organization based on the functions they perform

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divisional structure

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an organizational structure that divides the organization according to types of products or customers

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Personnel

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selecting the right individual, the idea that you need the right people, was ecclipsed by organizational

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Why has organizational grown over personnel? (4 reasons)

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1. Organizations have grown- there are now more large organizations

2. the nature of work has changed- now there is a focus on employee happiness while maximizing profits

3. Used to be production over service, now 80% of jobs are service

4. More available research about organizations

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What did Riggio say about the Hawthorne studies?

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They were flawed and not well donethey were fraudalent studies- They weren’t done methodologically - They weren’t serious studies but they did place a human face on industry

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4 STUDIES OF THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES

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Illumination Experiment- manipulated levels of lighting and the duration of work breaks, but wasn’t caused by the light but rather the fact that the workers were being observedRATR supervisor: experiment, people like to work in small groups BWOR observation:Interviews

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Basic idea of the HR movement

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in order to be effective in industry we need to understand what motivates the worker other than money:

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HR movement suggests these five things motivate workers other than money

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1. recognition

2. sense of purpose

3. benefits

4. sense of satisfaction

5. relationships/social interaction

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Douglas McGregor

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write a book that said that humans are not machines- we MUST motivate people, “Human Side of Enterprise”2 existing theories of management:

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McGregor's 2 existing theories of management

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Traditional: workers don’t like work must be forced prefer to be told 2. Modern work is natural No punishment seeks work Under current conditions- we don’t motivate enough

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What process did Mcgregor come up with?

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GOAL INTEGRATION: up to organizations to connect worker’s goal and the organization’s goal, the opp. is alienation/ the idea that management is the enemy

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Scanlon plan

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workers are rewarded based on the output of the organization, bonuses, profit- sharing

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Who came up with the Red Hot Stove theory of discipline/ what are its elements

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McGregor

1. swift

2. certain

3. fair

4. forewarned

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wrote 1954 osych of being book

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Maslow

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What was maslow's management style?

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positive, emphasized health rather than illness

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Euphychian managemen

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treat people like they matter, we should be concerned with workers’ positivity, Maslow

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I/O Hiearchy of Needs Application

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Physiological: money Safety: benefits/training Social: gym, clubs, caf, etc. newsletter Esteem: recognition, admiration- feeling special Self-actualization: very few people actually reach this state

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SATIATION

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“A need that is satisfied no longer motivates.”

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Wahba

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did the 1st meta-analysis of Maslow and found that the 5 needs seemed more simultaneous, critique

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Herzberg

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2 factor theory, hygiene factors, motivating factors

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TWO FACTOR THEORY

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states that 2 factors- motivators and hygienes- are important in determining worker satisfaction

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motivators

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elements related to job content that when present, lead to job satisfaction, ex. level of performance associated with each job, chances for advancement

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hygienes

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elements related to job content that when absent, cause job dissatisfaction, base salary, benefits, conditions

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Criticism of Herzberg's 2 factor theory

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Theory has been criticized b/c subsequent research did not find presence of the two factors, hygienes and motivators can also not be clearly distinguished always, did help spark job enrichment

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T-groups (sensitivity training)

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an OD technique that uses unstructured group interaction to assist workers in achieving insight into their own motivations and behavior patterns in dealing with other organizational members

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motivation

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the force that energizes, directs, and sustains, behavior

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7 theories of motivation

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1. Basic needs theory

2. ERG theory

3. McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

4. Goal-setting theory

5. Herzberg's 2 factor

6. Equity theory of motivation

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Basic need theories

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arranges from basic to higher needs

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ERG theory

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Aldefer’s theory that classifies needs into existence, relatedness (social interaction) , and growth needs (highest order, need to develop and recognize one’s potential), similar to Maslow’s, that as each level of need becomes satisfied, the next higher level becomes stronger motivato

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Miner

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said neither basic needs theory has led to a useful strategy for improving motivation

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McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

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Need for achievement: compelling drive to succeed and to get the job done Need for power: the need to direct and control the activities of others and be influential Need for affiliation: the desire to be liked and accepted by others- better for working in teams In each individual a particular need tends to dominate

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What did McClelland use to assess each individual's dominating need?

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TAT test

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What did Locke say about goals?

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They must be clear, specific, and quantifiable whenever possible

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Goal-setting theory

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the motivational theory that emphasizes the setting of specific challenging performance goals, Edward Locke’s theory, goals must be clear, specific, attainable, and whenever possible, quantified

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Pros of goal-setting theory

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as generated a lot of research, indicate support as a motivational technique

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Equity theory of Motivation

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J. Stacey Adams, states that workers are motivated by a desire to be treated equitably or fairly, If they perceive they are being treated fairly- they will maintain motivation, if not they will try to reduce the inequity, the worker brings certain INPUT (elements they invest in the job such as experience and effort) and expects certain OUTPUT (expectations from job such as pay and recognition)

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comparison others

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persons used as a basis for making judgements of equity/inequity

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underpayment inequity

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workers perception that inputs are greater than outputs

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overpayment inequity

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workers perception that outputs are greater than inputs

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Expectancy Theory of Motivation (VIE)

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Vroom, a cognitive theory of motivation that states that workers weigh expected costs and benefits of particular courses before they are motivated to take action

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valence

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the desirability of an outcome to an individual

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instrumentality

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the perceived rel b/w the performance of a particular behavior and the likelihood of receiving a particular outcome

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expectancy

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the perceived rel. b/w the individual’s effort and performance of a behavior

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job satisfaction

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the positive and negative feelings about ones job

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global approach

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views job satisfaction as an overall construct- is the employee satisfied overall?, pro: even single-item job satisfaction assessments are generally accurate

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facet approach

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views job satisfaction as made up of individual elements or facets, assumes they might be satisfied with some facets and not satisfied with others, pro: more detailed insight, also might be variation in terms of which workers value which facets

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3 ways to measure job satisfaction

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1. Employee Attitude Surveys

2. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

3. JOB DESCRIPTIVE INDEX

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Employee Attitude Surveys

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problem of self-report (unintentionally/intentionally not telling the truth), response bias: all neg. or all pos. answers, not understanding all the questions, difficult to interpret- what are you measuring against?

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Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

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a self-report measure that breaks down satisfaction into 20 job facets including supervisor’s competence, working conditions, compensation, chances for advancement, Ratings are marked on a scale from “very dissatisfied” to “neutral” to “very satisfied”

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Job descriptive index

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a self-report job satisfaction rating scale measuring five job facets: the job, supervision, pay, co-workers, and promotions

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Lawler-Porter Model

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a theory where the relationship between job satisfaction and performance is mediated by work-related rewards

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organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB)

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efers to commitment related behaviors, *efforts by organizational members who advance or promote the work organization and its goals*- those who engage in lots of OCB’s are less likely to turn over/be voluntarily absent

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Why are OCB’s related to organizational effectiveness?

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employees who help eachother need less managerial supervision -more willing to take on new responsibilities

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organizational commitment

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a worker’s feelings and attitudes about the entire work

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OCQ

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organizational commitment questionnaire, meant to find out about their attitude

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affective commitment

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employees emotional attachment to the organization

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continuous commitment

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refers to commitment to stay with the organization because there are neg. consequences to leaving

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normative commitment

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sense of duty or obligation to an organizatio

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voluntary absenteeism

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when employees miss work because they want to do something else

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involuntary absenteeism

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when you have a legit excuse for missing work

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Which age group tends to be more voluntarily absent?

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younger people

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Involuntary turnover

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when an employee is fired or laid off, certain amount is inevitable and even beneficial

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turnover intentions

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worker's self-reported intentions to leave their jobs

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job rotation

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the systematic movement of workers from one type of task to another to alleviate boredom and monotony and train on different tasks

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job enlargement

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the expansion of a job to include additional, more varied work tasks

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5 kinds of pay

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1. skill-based pay

2. merit- based pay

3. Gainsharing

4. Profit sharing

5. Employee ownership

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Skill based pay

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a system of compensation in which workers are paid based on their knowledge and skills rather than on their positions in the organization

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merit pay

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a compensation system in which employees receive a base rate and additional pay based on performance, can lead to feelings of unfairness, merit pay is often not that much

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Studies show that merit based pay needs to be this percent to have an impact

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7%

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gainsharing

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a compensation system based on effective group performance

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profit sharing

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a system where employees receive a small share of the organization's profits

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employee ownership

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a program where employees own all or part of an organization, either direct ownership or employee stock ownership

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What percent of people prefer alternate payment structures but don't like their own?

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80%

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compressed work weeks:

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schedules that decrease the number of days in the workweek while increasing the number of hours worked per day, higher satisfaction but no reduced absenteeism

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flextime

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a schedule that commits an employee to working a specified number of hours per week, but offers flexibility in regard to the beginning and ending times for each day, sense of freedom and control, reduces absenteeism

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3 strata in leadership pyramid

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Executive: top, DECIDE policy for the organization Middle manager: interpret policy, arguably the hardest position because they are the middle-man in the organization and have to work between the two levelsSupervisors: implement the policy

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2 definitions of management psych

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leader = rolepersonal qualities of the individual, idea that some are more suited towards leadership personal definition: able to influence others

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5 types of influence

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Reward: promising something positive Coercive: threatening something negative Legitimate: authority, leadership A is authorized to influence BReferent: B identifies with A, identification Expert: A knows more than B

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3 theories of what makes a leader

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Trait theory: certain types of traits Behavioral theory: leadership = style of behavior Situational/ Contingency Theory: *most modern* fit the situation = leader

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4 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAIT THEORY

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anatomy: does it make a difference?personality: ideal, domineering extrovert but no consistent correlationAbility: no consistent correlation Sensitivity: should be sensitive to the people they’re in charge of

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What does trait theory emphasize?

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selection

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Blake & mouton

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grid

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Behavior theory

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People can learn/ be trained to be a leader Blake & Mouton grid: Team manager (9,9) is ideal because he focuses on employees AND production You don’t look for people, you use people existing within the organization

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Situational theory

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leader sizes it up and determines how they should behave

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Tannenbaum and Schmidt

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situational, believe leaders should be flexible

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Leader-Match

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Fred Fiedler’s Model correlation between authoritarian leader and output and democratic leader and output Sometimes, both are the more effective options

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3 situational variables for either authoritarian or authoritative models (part of Fiedler’s model)

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members- relationship: good/relationship, relationship between the leader and member, measured by having members rate their loyalty to leadertask structure- high/low, how well elements of the work task are structured, how well-defined the goals are, whether the output can be easily evaluated position power: a leader’s authority to punish or reward followers, strong/weak and outlined usually in company guidelines

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In Fiedler's model, in the most extreme situations, what is the most effective leader

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task oriented with low LPC

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Charismatic leadership

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states that leaders possess some exceptional characteristics that cause others to be inspired

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transactional leader

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gets the job done, leadership based on some transaction, such as exchanging money for work

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transformational leader

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can transform other’s behavior, focuses on the leader’s ability to provide shared values and a vision for the future of the work group

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4 characteristics of transformational leadership

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Idealized Influence: TL are positive models for others, would not behave in a mannner inconsistent with their values

Inspirational motivation: provide compelling vision of a meaningful future

Intellectual stimulation: stimulate curosity and creativity, brainstorming, decision making

Individualized consideration: involves the leader’s personalized attention to each follower’s needs, and concerns to develop them

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MLQ survey

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evaluates leader on four char. of transformational leadership

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Great Man/Woman Theory

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much older than any of the formal social sciences disciplines, reflects the adage that “great leaders are born not made.” belief that certain qualities and abilities make some great people natural leaders, Idea that if Alexander the Great were alive today he would rise to the challenge again because he would have the same characteristics, idea that it is inborn

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leadership

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the ability to guide others towards the achievement of goals

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universalist theories

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theories that look for the characteristics common to all leaders

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traits

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enduring attributes associated with an individual's personality

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trait theory

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attempt to discover the traits of all effective leaders

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Leadership grid

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an application of the findings from the behavioral theories of leadership that stresses that an effective leader should be both task oriented and people oriented

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Fiedler's contingency model

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a leadership theory that maintains that effective leadership depends on a match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader

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According to Fiedler...

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leaders are either task oriented or relationship oriented

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How did Fiedler measure a leader's orientation?

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LPC- least preferred co-worker, a measure that assesses leaders’ task or relationship orientation by having them rate their most difficult fellow worker, Individuals who rate the co-worker somewhat leniently are more relationship-oriented

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Path goal theory

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states that a leader’s job is to help the work group achieve their desired goals, leader serves as a facilitator or guide who helps the group overcome roadblocks

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In path goal theory, how does the leader help the group achieve their goals?

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By adopting one of four categories of behavior

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What are the four categories of behavior of leaders in the path goal theory?

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directive: leader provides directions/instructions

achievement-oriented: concentrates on particular work outcomes

supportive: focuses on interpersonal relationships and showing concern for others

participative: encourages members to assume an active role in group planning and decision making

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DECISION MAKING MODEL

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Vroom’s theory that matches characteristics of the situation with leader decision- making strategies

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5 aspects of the decision making model

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Autocratic decision I: the leader makes the decision alone, using info available only to the leader

Autocratic decision II: the leader obtains info from subordinates and then makes the decision alone

Consultative decision I: the leader shares the problem w relevant subordinates, gets input but makes decision alone

Consultative decision II: the leader shares the problem w all subordinates, gets input but makes decision alone

Group decision: everyone makes the decision

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LMX

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Leader Member Exchange Model- the idea that effective leadership is determined by the quality of the interaction between the leader and particular group members

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In high quality leader member relations...

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there is frequent communication between the leader and the subordinates, in low- less positive

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Leadership training

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teach diagnostic skills, how to assess a situation to determine what kind of behavior will work best, second approach: make up for behaviors that leaders lack

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leader developmental readiness

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leader’s willingness to accept training

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Job redesign

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critics like Fiedler have suggested that training may be a waste of time/ organizational resources

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What is the difference between advertising and marketing?

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They are opposites- Ads get a message outward, marketing attracts interaction with the outside world to draw them inward

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What is the goal of advertising?

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Persuasion

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What is the goal of marketing?

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Accuracy

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What was advertising initially?

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Information- people telling you what they manufacture

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What was the shift in advertising and who is responsible for it?

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1901- Under Walter Scott, informational --> persuasional

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Who are the two main threads of psychology in advertising?

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Lab experimenters, Psychoanalysts

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Lab experimenters

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study people and their actions and reactions to advertising etc..

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Who were the originally ad psychologists?

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WWII propaganda people

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What did the Yale Group develop?

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S > M > R model – Source, Message, Recipient. (Developed at Yale Group)Whenever you have persuasion you have a source delivering a message to a recipient. In lab you can vary one and hold the other two constant to see what affect it has.

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What are the three kinds of sources in the SMR model?

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1. attractive

2. credible

3. powerful

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What are the three kinds of recipients in the SMR model?

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young v. old, male v. female, employed v. unemployed etc.

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Why did the Yale group decline?

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the experiments weren't always generalizable

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Psychoanalysts

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probe the unconscious to determine the real meaning of a product

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Freudian influence in advertising

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Qualitative, not QuantitativeBelieve that people are very erotic and oriented toward pleasure beyond sexual pleasure (eating, drinking, smoking etc.)Unconscious study. (ourselves are the last people who understand our own behavior)

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Depth

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Looking below the surface of why people do things

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What did Dicter do?

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He started a firm called color research associates. Said whenever you’re selling a product you must match it with a color. Every product has an unconscious meaning. Ex. Cosmetics – beauty Beef – manliness tofu – health etc. How people see the product is the most important factor for Dicter.

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What is the most important factor for Dicter?

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How people see the product

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Limen

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the threshold of awareness, subliminal messages are below the threshold of awareness

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Vance Packard

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Believed advertising today had too much advertising and it should be controlled

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Wilson Key

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advertisers are using sexual subliminal messages deliberately” ex. Marketing a doll for young girls that you wash and you see a girl fondling the genitals of the doll, in an effort to appear to the Freudian phallic stage. Key thinks this should be against the law because it is too manipulative.

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Aldus Huxley

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author of a book “Brave New World,” of a man living 500 years in the future

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What is significant about "Brave New World"?

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wo chapters dealt with the use of chemicals (chemo-persuasion) and hypnosis of advertising. “science has the potential to influence people against their will, and we should really look at this and decide if we really want this”

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How many persuasive messages are we exposed to per day on average?

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1500

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What is the conflict between marketing and advertising?

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The goal of marketing is rooted in accuracy. Advertising is rooted in public opinion

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4 basic methods for market research

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1. Survey

2. In-depth approach

3. Behavioral Approach

4. Pupilometry

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Survey

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finding out what people think by simply asking them. Pros – easy. Cons- they don’t measure behavior.

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Behavioral approach

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measuring actual behavior, ex. how do coupons stimulate sales?

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Who studied pupilometry?

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Krugmann

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Pupilometry

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– value of eye cameras / pupil dilation in advertising. If something is boring the eye pupil constricts. If we are interested the eye pupil dilates. It is useful because it is unconscious and involuntary.

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Segmentation

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dentifying individual differences between consumers to use for marketing -- bridges marketing + advertising.