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192 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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4 levels of physiology
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cells
tissues organs organ systems |
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6 examples of human physiology evolution
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The vertibrae retina
musculoskeletal consequences of bipedalism males and violent crime obesity epidemic drug trials using mice human urine |
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4 characteristics of water
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Cohesive
Adhesive Exhibits surface tension High specific heat capacity |
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Hydrophilic
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water loving
ex. epinephrine |
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Hydrophobic
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water fearing
ex. estrogen |
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-OH
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Hydroxyl
Hydrophilic |
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>=OH
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Carbonyl
Hydrophilic |
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OH>=O
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Carboxyl
Hydrophilic |
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-NH2
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Amino
Hydrophilic |
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-SH
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Sulfhydryl
Hydrophilic |
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-CH3
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Methyl
Hydrophobic |
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Carbohydrates
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C:H:O
1:2:1 Hexose Short term fuel storage primary source of dietary calories immediate fuel for most tissues |
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What is a monosaccharide?
Give 3 examples. |
Single sugar
Glucose, fructose, galactose |
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What is a Disaccharide?
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2 sugars
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Sucrose
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Disaccharide
glucose + fructose Sugars/ sweeteners |
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Lactose
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Disaccharide
glucose + galactose milk products |
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Maltose
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Disaccharide
glucose + glucose |
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Cellulose
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polysaccharide
glucose polymer 1-4 beta bonds fiber |
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Starch
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polysaccharide
glucose polymer 1-4 alpha and 1-6 alpha bonds complex carbohydrate and main source of dietary calories comes from plants |
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Relatives of Starch
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maltodextrin
dextrose high fructose corn syrup |
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Glycogen
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polysaccharide
glucose polymer 1-4 and 1-6 alpha bonds made by animals |
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Where is glycogen stored?
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muscle fibers and liver
~2500 calories worth |
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Lipid
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hydrophobic
long term energy storage cell membranes hormones |
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triacyglycerols
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fats
350 calories per pound no limit on how many calories can be stored |
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Unsaturated fats
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comes from plants
liquid at room temperature double or triple C-C bonds healthy |
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Saturated fats
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animal fats
solid at room temperature no double or triple C-C bonds unhealthy |
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Unsaturated fats
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modified plant fats
solid at room temperature very unhealthy |
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Phospholipid
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lipid
nitrogen/oxygen head and two fatty acid chains cell membranes |
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Steroids
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lipid
has 4 rings ex: hormones and cholesterol |
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Eicosanoids
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lipid
fatty acid that is bent in half creating a ring involved in inflammatory process |
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Protein
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built from amino acids
peptide bonds (in amino groups) hydrophilic and hydrophobic |
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What is an essential protein?
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proteins that we must consume in our diet.
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What is the primary structure of a protein?
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amino acids form peptide bonds and stick together.
"ribbon" |
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What is the secondary structure of a protein?
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alpha helices
beta pleated sheets "ribbon coils or folds" |
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What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
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additional folding with linkages via:
hydrogen bonds hydrophobic interactions disulfide bridges ionic bonds |
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What is the Quaternary structure of a protein?
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different protein subunits stick together
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nucleic acid
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built from nucleotides
hydrophilic |
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What makes up a nucleotide?
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Phosphate group
Sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) nitrogenous base (a,t,g,c,u) |
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What are the three parts of the animal cell?
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Cell membrane
nucleus cytoplasm |
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What are the 4 parts of the cell membrane?
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Phospholipid bilayer
Membrane proteins Cholesterol Carbohydrates |
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Nucleus
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command center
contains DNA ribosomes are assembled |
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Cytoplasm
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cytosol
organelles |
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Smooth ER
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lipid synthesis
Ca++ storage |
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Rough ER
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has ribosomes
protein synthesis |
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Transport vessicles
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trafficking of cellular products
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Golgi apparatus
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packaging and processing of cellular products
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Lysosomes
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digestion
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Peroxisomes
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digest lipids and toxins
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Mitochondria
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Site of cellular respiration
most ATP production in cell Inner and Outer membranes Inter membrane Space and matrix |
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Cytoskeleton
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Provides structural support
Extracellular Movement Intracellular movement Made of microtubules, microfillaments, and intermediate fillaments |
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Cilla
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Movement
Many and short 9+2 morphology trachea, bronchi, uterine tubes |
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Flagella
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Movement
1 or 2 and long 9+2 morphology male sperm |
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Microvilli
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increase surface area
secretion and absorption not capable of movement intestinal tract and nephrons |
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Extracellular matrix
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Material found between animal cells
Made of water, protein, and minerals |
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Tight junctions
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Occludins
stops movement between cells |
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Adhesive junctions
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Cadherins
holds cells together |
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Gap junctions
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Connexins
connects the cytosol of adjacent cells |
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Name the 4 times of tissue?
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Epithelial, muscle, connective,neural
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Epithelial tissue
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avascular
exposed surface conected to basement membrane may secrete something Ex: epidermis, endocrine and exocrine tissues |
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Connective tissue
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provides structure and support
most common Ex: bone, blood, cartilage, tendons and ligaments, and adipose tissue |
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Muscle tissue
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Electrically and chemically excitable
capable of contraction contains lots of protein Ex: skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle |
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Neural tissue
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Electrically and chemically excitable
transmits electrical signals Ex; Neural tissue of CNS and PNS |
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A+B -> C
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anabolic
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C <- A+B
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catabolic
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Hydrolysis
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consumes water
ex: splitting a dipeptide into two free amino acids, splitting a disaccharide into two monosaccharides. |
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Condensation
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Produces water.
ex: making a dipeptide from two amino acids, making a disaccharide from two monosaccharides. |
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Oxidation
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making more bonds with oxygen.
Releases energy. |
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Reduction
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Making more bonds with hydrogen.
Requires energy. |
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Phosphorylation
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Remove phosphate from ATP to produce R-P and ADP.
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dephosphorylation
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C-P produces C + P
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Exergonic
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Energy is released
ex. glycolysis |
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Endergonic
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Energy is required
ex. gluconeogenesis |
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Activation Energy
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amount of energy required to get a reaction started
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Enzyme
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Biological catalyst that reduces activation energy.
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Examples of enzymes
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Cellulase - Cellulose
Lactase - Lactose Sucrase - Sucrose Basically ends in -ase. |
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6 Enzyme rules
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1. Enzymes are proteins.
2. Not consumed in reaction. 3.Lowers activation energy. 4. Do not contribute energy. 5. ATP may be needed for endergonic reactions. 6. Specific to substrate. |
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4 Factors that influence enzyme funtion
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Environmental conditions (temperature or ph level)
Substrate concentration Enzyme concentration Catalytic rate of the enzyme |
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Cofactors
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extra piece needed for enzme to fit into substrate
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Modulators
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Allosteric (fits in different place)
shapes binding site so that enzyme can bind to substrate. |
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phosphorylation of enzyme
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ATP + Substrate -> ADP and extra P shapes substrate so that enzyme can increase or decrease funtion.
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Competitive inhibitor
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compete for the active site, reducing the rate of substrate catalysis.
Ex. penicillin, alli |
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3 high energy molecules of cellular respiration
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ATP
NADH FADH2 They can store and release energy |
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Characteristics of Glycolysis
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Anerobic
Occurs in Cytosol Investment Phase Payoff Phase |
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What is consumed and produced in Glycolysis?
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Consumed: 2 ATP, 1 Glucose
Produced: 4 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate |
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Characteristics of Pyruvate decarboxylation
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Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
Catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase |
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What is consumed and produced in Pyruvate decarboxylation?
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Consumed: 2Pyruvate
Produced 2 NADH, 2 acetyl -CoA, CO2 |
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What is the chaperone in pyruvate decarboxylation?
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Coenzyme A
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Characteristics of the Krebs cycle
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Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
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What is consumed and produced in the Krebs cycle?
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Consumed: 2 acetyl CoA
Produced: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 4 CO2, 2 FADH2 |
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Why do we need to breathe?
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Because O2 is the final electron acceptor.
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How many ATP are produced from 1 NADH?
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3
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How many ATP can one FADH2 produce?
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2
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What is consumed and produced in the Electron transport chain?
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Consumed: 10 NADH, 2 FADH2, 6 O2
Proudced: 34 ATP |
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Fermentation
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Caused by not enough oxygen; shuts down every step in ATP synthesis exept for glycolysis.
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Lactate
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accumulations indirectly contributes to muscle fatigue, but does not cause muscle soreness.
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Fat Catabolism
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Lipase removes fatty acids.
Products: 3 fatty acids and Glycerol. |
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Where is glycerol catabolized?
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Glycolysis
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Where are fatty acids catabolized?
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Beta Oxidation
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Beta Oxidation
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Produces 8 acetyl CoA
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How many ATP does one fat molecule produce?
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300
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Where are Ketones produced?
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In the Liver
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What uses ketones as fuel?
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The heart
The brain, after one week of starvation. |
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Ketones are slightly ____ and may lead to _______ In these three states___, ____, _____.
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acidic, acidosis
Fasted state, diabetic, high fat diet |
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Glycogen catabolism
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In liver and muscle.
Glucose-6-phosphatase lets glucose flow out of liver to bloodstream (not found in muscle). |
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Protein synthesis
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Occurs via ribosomes.
Free amino acids are obtained via digestive tract or from protein catabolism in other tissues. How non-essential amino acids are produced. |
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6 functions of membrane proteins.
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Enzymes
Signal Transduction Intercellular connections Cell to cell recognition Connect cytoskeleton to ECM Transport |
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By what means to proteins transport objects into the cell
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Channels (gated, and non-gated)
Carriers (direct active transport, indirect active transport, passive transport) |
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Rules of Diffusion
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Passive movement down a concentration gradient.
Wants equilibrium Quick over short distances, slow over long distances Positively related to temperature Negatively related to molecular size. |
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Hypertonic solution
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High solute causes water from inside cell to rush outside of the cell causing it to collapse.
ex: seawater. |
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Isotonic Solution
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Water concentration is the same inside and outside of the cell (equilibrium).
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Hypotonic solution
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water is higher concentration outisde of the cell, causing it to rush into the cell which consequently bursts the cell.
Ex: pure water |
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Aquaporin
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non-gated water channel
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Voltage gating
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change in membrane electrical potential causes the gate to open or close.
Ex: Na+ channels in neurons. |
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Chemical (ligand) gating
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ligand binds to receptor site causing the channel to open or close.
ex: Na+/ K+ channels in skeletal muscle |
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Mechanical gating
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Mechanical force opens or closes the gate.
Ex: pressure receptors in the dermis of the skin |
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Carriers
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Can pump molecules against concentration gradient.
Specificity: can pump specific large molecules into or out of cell. |
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Uniport
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1 molecule 1 direction
ex: glucose |
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symport
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2 molecules 1 direction
ex: glucose/ K+ |
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antiport
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2 molecules 2 directions
ex: Na+/ K+ |
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Pure diffusion
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passive movement across the phospholipid bilayer
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Facilitated diffusion
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Passive movement through a protein channel or carrier.
Ex: water through aquaporins, glucose diffusion through a glucose uniport. |
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Direct active transport
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Direct use of ATP energy
EX: Na+/ K+ antiport |
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Indirect active transport
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Indirect use of ATP energy
Ex: Na+/ Glucose symport |
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Large scale transport
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Exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis
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Concentration of blood plasma
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3 L
Low K+, High Na+, High Ca++, High Cl-, High protein |
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Concentration of intersitial fluid
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11 L
Low K+, High Na+, High Ca++, High Cl-, Low protein |
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Concentration of intercellular fluid
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28 L
High K+, Low Na+, low Ca++ with exception to ER, Low Cl-, high protein |
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Paracrine
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Chemical messengers that go short distances.
Ex: histamine |
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Autocrine
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Cells that both secrete and recieve message from own cell.
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Cytokine
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Chemical messengers that go long and short distances.
Ex: leukocytes |
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Hormone
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Chemical Messenger that always goes long distances via the blood stream to target everywhere in the body.
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Neurohormone
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Secreted by neurons, goes long distances via the blood stream.
Ex: oxytocin |
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Neurotransmitter
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Secreted by neuron, goes short distances.
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What chemical messenger classes use diffusion as a transport pathway?
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Autocrine, paracrine, cytokine, neurotransmitter
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What chemical messenger classes use the bloodstream as a transport pathway?
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Cytokine, Hormone, Neurohormone
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What chemical messengers are hydrophilic? Where are their receptors located?
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Amino acids, amines, peptides.
Cell membrane |
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What chemical messengers are hydrophobic? Where are their receptors located?
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Steroids, eicosanoids.
Intracellular. |
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hydrophobic messengers act as?
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transcription factors which influence the expression of DNA
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Do hydrophobic messengers have a fast or slow response?
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Slow due to hydrophobic interactions.
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Chemical (or ligand) gated ion channel
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Hydrophillic
facilitates passive movement down it's electrical concentration gradient. quick response found in nervous system and muscle control. |
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What is the regulated protein needed for the Ion channel, cAMP, and IP3 G-protein pathways?
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Ion channel: ion channel
cAMP: adenylate cyclase IP3: phospholipase C |
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What is the substrate needed for protein regulation for the Ion channel, cAMP, and IP3 G-protein pathways?
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ion: none
cAMP: ATP IP3: PIP2 |
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What is the second messenger needed for the Ion channel, cAMP, and IP3 G-protein pathways?
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ion: none or ion
cAMP: cAMP IP3: IP3 and DAG |
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Do the three g-protein pathways involve protein kinases?
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ion: no
cAMP: yes IP3: yes |
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Do the three g-protein pathways involve Ca++
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ion: no
cAMP: no IP3: yes |
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why can cells use small amounts of primary messengers?
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because of cAMP messenger system amplication. response is amplified with each step producing a massive response.
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Agonist
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bind to a primary ligands receptor to produce a similar response.
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exogenous agonist
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agonist that comes from outside of body.
ex: opioids |
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endogenous agonist
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naturally occuring agonist in the body.
ex: corticosterone |
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receptor antagonist
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chemicals for endogenous or exogenous origin that bind to a receptor and produce NO response on the target cell.
Ex: diaphenhydramine HCl |
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Down regulation of chemical receptors
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occurs when target cell is continually exposed to high concentrations of chemical messengers. Reduces the number or receptors over time due to the fact that the ligand is yelling at target cell.
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Up regulation of chemical receptors
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occurs when the target cell is continually exposed to low concentrations of the chemical messenger. Receptor number increases because the ligand is whispering to the target cell.
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Antagonistic control
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"fighting", secreting cells are sending stimulating and inhibiting messages. The one that sends the strongest message wins.
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Tonic control
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One factor that causes a response due to the increase or decrease of cell stimulation.
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Negative feedback
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An initial stimulus produces a response which causes the stimulus to decrease or disappear.
very common Ex: Thermoregulation, hormone secretion, blood pressure |
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positive feedback
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an initial stimulus produces a response which causes the stimulus to increase.
rare Ex: labor contractions, blood clotting, Na+ channel opening during an action potential |
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Half-life
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The time required for the concentration of a substance in the blood to decrease by 50%. After four or five half-lives the hormone no longer has any significant effect.
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Steroid Hormones
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Produced in smooth ER
bound to carrier proteins, and synthesized as needed. Longest half-lives (hours to days). hydrophobic Ex: corticoids and progesterones, androgens, estrogens. |
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What is the shape of a Steroid hormone?
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It is characterized by 4 C rings, unlike cholesterol it is missing the fatty acid chain.
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Peptide hormones
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produced in rough ER
synthesized and stored prior to release. hydrophilic intermediate half-life (minutes to an hour). |
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Peptied hormone processing
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additional amino acids cleaved from the peptide hormone first in the golgi and then immidately before secretion.
Preprohormone ->prohormone-> hormone |
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Insulin processing
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There is the same number of c-peptide in the bloodstream as there is insulin due to the fact that c-peptide is cleaved from insulin just prior to secretion into bloodstream.
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What are the three types of amine hormones?
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Catecholamines, melatonin, thyroid hormones.
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The catecholamines
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Neurohormones
Hydrophilic Derived from tyrosine through L-dopa. Short half life Ex: dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine |
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What characterizes a catecholamine?
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double hydroxyl group attached to the carbon ring.
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Thyroid hormones
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hydrophobic
derived from two tyrosine amino acids that are iodinated. long half-life (5 days) Ex: T4, T3, RT3 |
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What characterizes a T4?
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it has two tyrosine groups that both have two iodines covalently bonded to each group.
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What characterizes a T3?
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Two tyrosine amino groups, the medial one being double iodinated and the lateral one having only one iodine covalently bonded.
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What characterizes a RT3?
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Two tyrosine amino groups the medial one having only one iodine covalently bonded, whereas the lateral one is double iodinated.
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hypothalamus
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secretes 7 tropic hormones: PRH, PIH, GnRH, GHRH, GHIH, CRH, TRH.
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Posterior pituitary
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secretes 2 non-tropic hormones:
Oxytocin, ADH or vasopressin |
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Oxytocin
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synthesized by supraoptic nuclei
causes milk letdown stimulated labor contractions promotes pair bonding |
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ADH or vasopressin
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synthesized by paraventricular nuclei
stimulates water retention by the kidney diabetes insipidus occurs when vasopressin is not produced or does not correctly stimulate the target cells. |
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Anterior pituitary
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5 tropic hormones: LH, FSH, GH, ACTH, TSH
1 non-tropic hormone: PRL controlled by hypothalamus via the hypothalamic-anterior pituitary portal system |
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Portal systems
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Circulatory arrangement where there are two capillary beds in series
Ex: Hypothalamic-anterior pituitary, kidney, digestive tract/ liver |
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Primary disorder
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endocrine gland isn't working/ secreting enough hormone to produce desired effect.
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Secondary disorder
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Anterior pituitary isn't functioning correctly/ secreting enough hormone to produce desired effect on endocrine gland
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Tertiary Disorder
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hypothalamus isn't functioning correctly/ secreting enough hormone to stimulate the anterior pituitary.
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Prolactin
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Only completely non-tropic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary.
Stimualtes milk synthesis and breast development unknown function in males |
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Growth Hormone
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During puberty: stimulates growth
During adulthood: regulates fat, sex drive, skin, immune system. |
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Turners syndrome
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insufficient GH production. Abnormally short.
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Gigantism
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Excess GH secretion during puberty. Robert Wadlow
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Acromegaly
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Excess GH secretion after puberty. Andre the giant
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Thyroid hormones
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hydrophobic
stimulate cellular respiration |
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Iodine budget
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Obtained from iodine in the diet
inputs = outputs Output: urine and feces Needed for thyroid hormones |
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Hypothyroidism
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Low metabolic activity
Feels cold, weight gain, excessive sleep causes permanent mental retardation and dwarfism in children |
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Hyperthyroidism
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High metabolic activity
feels hot, weight loss, insomina, and possible psychosis. |
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Diseases that cause goiters.
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Iodine deficiency: hypothyroidism
Grave's disease: hyperthyroidism |
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why do goiters form?
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over stimulation of the thyroid.
Non-reversible, must be surgically removed |
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Parathyroid
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found on the dorsal surface of the thyroid
Secretes PTH |
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PTH
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Mobilization of bone calcium
increased retention of calcium by kidneys increases intestinal absorption of calcium through calcitrol |
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Calcitrol
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increases intestinal absorption of Ca++
produced from vitamin D3 Synthesized and secreted by liver and kidneys prolactin stimulates calcitrol synthesis Regulated by PTH |
