Human Growth And Development

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Human Growth Definition

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A continual and cumulative process involving all aspects of growth-- physical (biological), cognitive, socio/emotional; Therefore, it requires a holistic perspective

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Theorist(s) in charge of Psychoanalytic Theory

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Freud, Erikson

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Theorist(s) in charge of Cognitive Development Theory

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Piaget

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Which theorist emphasizes the role of sexual urges and unconscious motivation as a sign of determination of behavior?

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Freud

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According to this theorist, at birth, the child's personality consists only of the _____ and ______. Instinctual forces of the ____, which is one of the components of one's personality. It is based on the pleasure principal.

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1. id 2. ego 3. id

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The ________ is the rational portion based on the reality principal.

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ego

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The _______ consists of one's internalized moral standards

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superego

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Libido

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The psychic energy of your sex instinct, it shifts to different parts of your body as the child progresses through the 5 psychosexual stages of development

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Oral Stage

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1st of 5 psychosexual stages of development
-birth--2 years; child gums/bites everything in site, breast is source of pleasure
-fixation-- child is weaned from bottle/breast too early/late
outcome-- as adult child will be gullible; excessive eating/drinking/smoking behaviors

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Anal Stage

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2nd of 5 psychosexual stages of development
-2-3 yrs; Anus is source of pleasure
-fixation: child is under/over potty trained
-developmental outcome: adult is overly neat, always on time, stingy, stubborn, never disobeys, excessive sloppiness

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Phallic Stage

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3rd stage of psychosexual development
-3-6 yrs; penis source of pleasure
-fixation: Child fails to identify with same sex parent
-developmental outcome: homosexuality

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Latency Stage

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4th stage of psychosexual development
-6-12 yrs;
- no sexual fixations

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Genital Stage

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5th stage of psychosexual development
-12- adult; genitalia is primary source of pleasure
-no sexual fixations

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Criticisms of Freud

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Role of culture, no support for children experiencing Oedipal or Electra conflicts

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Which theorist had the first systematic explanation of human development?

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Freud

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Which theorist stresses the active role of the child in development?

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Erikson

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Erikson focuses more on the ____ and _____determinants of development

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1. social
2. cultural

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According to ________, what must during each psychosocial stage?

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1. Erikson--person must resolve a social crisis in order to progress in a healthy direction

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Criticisms of Erikson

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Does not specify experiences needed to resolve crisis, male bias,

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Who was first to stipulate that we continue to develop from intimacy to adulthood?

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Erikson

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Which theorist is biologically oriented?

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Piaget

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How does cognitive development occur?

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In an invariant sequence of qualitatively different stages

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According to Piaget, how are children viewed?

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As active explorers

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According to Piaget, two major processes are _____ and ______

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Organization and adaptation

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Equilibration

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Important between cognitive schemata and the environment; process of maintaining balance

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Knowledge is developed through what process?

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look up

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Criticisms of Piaget

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-Ignores unconscious behavior and it's possible influence on behavior, over emphasis on biological role

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Who was responsible for the emergence of study of cognitive development?

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Piaget

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Who was the first theorist to stress that children are active and adaptive organisms?

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Piaget

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Types of behavioral learning:

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Classical (Reflexive) Conditioning, Operant (Intrumental) Conditioning, Social Cog theory--observational learning

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Classical Conditioning

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Pavlov; occurs when a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response as a result of repeated pairings with a non-neutral stimulus which always elicits a particular response-- little Albert; passive learning

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Operant Conditioning

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Skinner; learning that occurs as the result of consequences of a behavior

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Social Cog Theory (observational learning)

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Bandura

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According to behavioral theories, what does development result from?

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Learned associations between stimuli and and responses (habits)

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Different learning principles

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Distinction, Generalization, Extinction, Shaping, Premack principle

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Two types of reinforcers:

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Primary and secondary-- have to gain- extra time, good grade, praise, $$, etc

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Learning:

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Behavior due to experiences

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What does organization consist of?

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Schemata

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What does adaptation consist of?

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Assimilation and accommodation

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Assimilation

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Taking in new info

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Accommodation

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Adjust existing info to fit new info

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Two types of reinforcement are?

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Pos and neg-- both increase behavior

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"If you clean your room, you won't have to mow lawn."

what type of reinforcement?

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Neg-- removes aversive stimulus

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Two major schedules are?

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Continuous and intermittent

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Two types of punishment?

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presentation punishment and removal punishment

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Presentation Punishment

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To suppress, decrease, etc; R--->S-

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Removal Punishment

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Timeout, response cost, etc; R---> S+

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Generalization

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A learning principle; teach how to behave in a certain way in one situation and another way in a different situation

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Characteristics needed for punishment to work:

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Immediate, intense, consistent, caring, rationale, reinforce

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Operant conditioning criticisms

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Oversimplified account of development, not enough attention paid to cognitive determinants (except for social cognitive theory and cognitive behavior modification)

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Learned helplessness

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The state of apathy that may develop when ppl perceive little or no connection between their actions and their outcomes

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Example of learned helplessness

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dogs learned to be helpless because they could do nothing to control shocks; (also seen in concentration camp survivors)

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How important is the role of 'controllability' in learned helplessness?

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Must learn about controllability of events as it is an important aspect of development (ie.the quality that might make reinforcements satisfying)

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Observational learning is a part of what theory?

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Social Cognitive

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Observational learning

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Occurs from observing and then imitating the behavior of others.

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Bandura's BoBo doll experiment is an example of what kind of learning?

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Observational

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What did Bandura say about some of the models he worked with?

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Some models are more worthy of attention than others (ie warm, nurturer, competent, or powerful

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Reciprocal Determinism Model

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People are actively involved in creating the environments that will influence their growth and development

Social cog theory

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According to Cog. Behavioral Modification model, as part of preparing for adulthood, children must learning to regulate and manage....

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Their own lives, set their own goals to provide their own reinforcement

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What do high standards lead to?

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Higher performance

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Characteristics needed for self regulation

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Set goals
Monitor the goals set
Record and evaluate performance
Reward yourself for a job well done

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Example of self regulation using positive self talk

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Using positive “self-talk”
Involves giving individuals something concrete to do that focuses their attention and to internally reinforce themselves for doing it.

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What has positive self talk (self regulation) been shown to do?

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regulate individuals' behaviors as opposed to punishment

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Ethological Continuity Theory

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Emphasizes the importance of the biological bases of behavior
Focuses on innate behaviors thought to have adaptive significance as a result of natural selection
Thus, learning interacts with innate behaviors to produce adaptation (e.g., crying) [Harlow & Bowlby videos]
There are critical periods in development (e.g., video)

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Four characteristics of innate behavior

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It is universal
It is stereotypical (e.g., crying)
It requires no learning
It is minimally affected by the environment

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Phase 1 of ethological attachment theory

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Phase 1: From birth to 2 months – infants instinctively direct their attachment to human figures.

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Phase 2 of ethological attachment theory

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Phase 2: 2-7 months – attachment becomes focused on one figure, usually the primary caregiver

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Phase 3 of ethological attachment theory

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Phase 3: 7-24 months – specific attachments develop (e.g., mother)

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Phase 4 of ethological attachment theory

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Phase 4: From 24 months on – children become aware of others’ feelings and goals, and take them into account in forming their own actions (Schaffer, 1996).

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When do understanding goals of attachment appear to develop?

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phase 3

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Criticisms of ethological theory

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Many assumptions are untestable
It is a retrospective explanation of development
Note: it has made us more aware of the important biological contributors to development

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Humanism according to Maslow and Rogers:

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– stress the person’s capacity for personal growth and to choose one’s destiny and positive qualities
They stressed internal factors in development-self perceptions
They also emphasized the active role of the person in determining his/her own development

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

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Suggested that all individuals are motivated by an “actualizing” tendency (i.e., to fulfill one’s unique potential)
Claimed that before we are able to satisfy our higher level needs, we must satisfy lower level needs

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Are a lot of ppl actively searching for self actualization?

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No- very few

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Criticism of Hierarchy of needs

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Subjectivity

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Dialectical (Sociocultural) Theory
Vygotsky influenced our current dialectical theories and felt that one’s culture and use of language is very important to our development
Emphasis on the continuing interaction between a person and his/her environment (known as interactionism)

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Vygotsky influenced our current dialectical theories and felt that one’s culture and use of language is very important to our development
Emphasis on the continuing interaction between a person and his/her environment (known as interactionism)

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What do dialeticians emphasize?

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that all psychological events take place in broader contexts (i.e., social, cultural, and historical); (known as contextualism

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Bronfenbrenner (1986, 2004) – suggests that development reflects the influence of several environmental systems- what are those 5 systems?

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Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem

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Microsystem

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is the setting in which the individual lives

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Mesosystem

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– involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts

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Criticisms of the Bio-ecological Model

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An inadequate attention to biological factors (but added more on influence of biology in 2004)
Little emphasis on cognitive factors