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540 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How do cytology and histology differ? |
Histology is the study of tissues, whereas cytology is the study of cells. |
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What four ways can we look at anatomy?
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1. Macroscopically or Gross; either by region, systematically or superficially. 2. Microscopically (in terms of histology or cytology) 3. Developmentally; in terms of how the body changes through growth and development 4. Abnormality; how the body changes through aging, injury and disease |
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What are the 6 levels that you consider an organism? |
chemically cellular tissue organs systems entire organism |
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What is an organ |
a structure with 2 types of tissues |
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What is an (organ) system? |
A group of organs working together to perform a common task/purpose |
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What is the anatomical position? |
stood upright lower limbs together arms by side, palms facing upwards |
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How many body planes are there? |
3 |
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What is the coronal body plane |
The plane bisecting the organism to separate front from back. |
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What is dorsal |
back |
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What is posterior |
back |
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What is anterior |
front |
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what is ventral |
front |
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What is the sagittal body plane? |
The body plane that bisects the organism to separate the left from the right. |
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What is the difference between parasagittal and medial-sagittal |
parasagittal bisects the organism unsymmetrically, whereas medial-sagittal bisects the organism symmetrically |
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What is the transverse body plane |
The body plane bisecting the organism to separate the top from the bottom, through the medial. |
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What is inferior |
below |
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what is superior |
above |
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What is lateral |
to the side, away from the medial |
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What is proximal vs distal |
proximal means closer distal means further away |
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When using proximal/distal what should you take into consideration |
the origin |
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What is the origin for describing proximal/distal of the blood vessels |
heart |
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what is the origin for describing proximal distal of the body |
trunk |
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What 2 groups are the bones of the skeleton characterised into? |
axial and appendicular |
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How many bones are there in the human body |
206 |
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What are the axial bones |
rib cage; skull and vertebrae column |
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what are the appendicular bones |
pelvis, shoulders and limbs |
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What is the definition of superficial? |
on the surface |
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Is muscle deep or superficial in comparison to: a) skin b) bone |
a) deep b) superficial |
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What is the arm in anatomical sense
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between shoulder and elbow |
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What would you call the structure from the tips of the fingers to the shoulder |
upper limb |
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What is the leg anatomically? |
from the knee to the ankle |
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What is the region from the hip to the foot called? |
lower limb |
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What cavities are in the Dorsal Body Cavity? |
Cranial cavity and vertebral cavity |
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What cavities are in the ventral body cavity? |
thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities |
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What organ is held in the cranial cavity |
brain |
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What organs are held in the thoracic cavity |
lungs, heart, oesophagus, thymus, trachea |
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What organs are in the abdominal cavity |
stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys |
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What organs are in the pelvic cavity? |
bladder, large intestine and internal reproductive organs |
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What cavities are found within the thoracic cavity? |
Pleural and pericardial |
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What separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity |
diaphragm |
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What cavity holds the heart |
pericardial cavity |
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What is the name of the generic cavity which holds all of the organs within the thoracic cavity, minus the lungs |
mediastinum |
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How many sections can the abdominal region be split into |
4 or 9 |
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What are the names of the 4 regions of the abdomen |
left upper, right upper, left lower, right lower quadrants |
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What are the names of the 9 abdominal regions, starting with the top right and ending bottom left |
right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilicus, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac |
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What structure's role is to carry and protect the spinal chord, support the thoracic/rib cage and protects organs within? |
The vertebral column |
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What are the other functions of the vertebral column?
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Weight transfer and absorbs shock fro lower limb. Also provides attachment points for muscles |
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What are the regions of the spine and how many vertebrae are in each region |
Cervial - 7 Thoracic - 12 Lumbar - 5 Sacral - 1 ( 5 fused) Coccyx - 1 ( 2-5 fused) |
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What are the two regions of the intervertebral disk and what are their names and functions? |
Annulus Fibrosis - concentric rings of fibrous cartilage Nucleus Pulposes - centrally located structure |
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Where are the intervertebral disks found? |
inferior to C2 and superior to S1 |
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What total length of the vertebral column is made up of intervertebral disks? |
25% approx |
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What is the function of curvatures to the spine |
1. body balance - to create head + upper body over centre of gravity 2. Shock absorbtion |
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What can increase/decrease curvatures in the spine? |
Poor posture, disease, age, weight carriage |
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What is the name for a curvature that starts going away from the body but comes back in |
Kyphosis |
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What is the name for a curvature that starts going inwards towards the body but then goes out? |
lordosis |
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What areas of the spine exhibit lordosis |
Lumbar and cervical |
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What ares of the spine exhibit kyphosis |
thoracic and sacral |
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Define joint and explain their function |
a joint is where two bones meet it allows articulation and mechanical support |
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What are the 3 categories of functional classification for joints? |
Synarthroses - no movement Amphiarthroses - little movement Diarthroses - free movement |
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What are the 3 structural classifications for joints? |
Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial |
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What are the 3 types of fibrous joint? |
Suture Gomphosis Syndesmosis |
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What is characteristic of a suture joint |
interlocking bones immovable (synarthroses) periosteum - continous outer bone layer fibrous tissue layer |
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What is characteristic of a gomphosis joint? |
Peg in socket Supported by fibrous ligaments Very little/no movement (synarthroses) |
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What characterises a syndesmosis joint? |
In between two long bones Fibrous tissue band/ interosseous membrane allows forces to pass between bones small amount of movement (amphiarthroses) |
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What are the three types of cartilage in the body |
hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage |
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What are the properties of elastic cartilage |
-elastic fibers with collagen and proteoglycans -rigid but elastic properties example in external ear |
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What are the properties of fibrocartilage |
strongest cartilage form more collagen than proteoglycans thick bundles of collagen fibers slightly compressable - good at dealing with pressure example in intervertebral disks |
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What are the properties of hyaline cartilage |
weakest cartilage form equal amounts of collagen and proteoglycans collagen fibres equally dispersed smooth + translucent reduces friction and absorbs shock covers bone/articulating surfaces |
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What are the two types of cartilaginous joints? |
Synchondrosis and Symphysis |
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What is synchondrosis |
type of joint found in children or young adults at the end of long bones replaced with bone as you age allows for the growth of long bones such as femur in the body To do with growth rather than movement and so synarthroses |
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What is symphysis |
type of joint generally found in the midline, intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis. ends of articulating bones covered in hyaline fibrocartilage in between. Allows some movement - amphiarthroses |
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What characterises a synovial joint? |
not directly joined synovial cavity joined by capsule synovium - produces synovial fluid all free moving - diarthroses hyaline covered articulating surfaces |
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Name the 6 types of synovial joint |
plane pivot hinge saddle ellipsoid ball and socket |
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What characterises a plane joint |
sliding or gliding movement uniaxial movement eg acromioclavicular joint |
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What characterises a saddle joint? |
convex and concave structures on both articulating surfaces biaxial movement eg carpo-metacarpal joint |
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What characterises a hinge joint? |
uniaxial limited by shape of articular surfaces and strong ligament which also adds support elbow and ankle |
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What characterises a Pivot joint? |
Rounded process of bone Rotates within tunnel or ring structure uni axial rotational movement atlanto-axial joint |
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What characterises a ellipsoid or condyloid joint joint? |
one spherical articulating surface and one with a complementary depression biaxial or multi-axial movement eg metacarpophalangeal joint |
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What characterises a ball and socket joint? |
rounded articular (ball) and concave articular surface (socket) multi axial unstable - risk of dislocation shoulder or hip |
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What are the limitations of synovial joint movement? |
1. the shape and extent of articular surfaces 2. tensions of joint capsule 3. the tensions of ligaments surrounding the joints 4. muscles crossing and acting upon a joint 5. bony parts of joint colliding |
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What is the difference between ligament and tendons? |
ligaments connect bones to bones tendons connect bones to muscles |
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flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue - ligament or tendon? |
Tendon |
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tough, flexibe, fibrous connective tissue - ligament or tendon? |
Ligament |
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Characterise osteoarthritis? |
Osteo = degenerative joint disease articular cartilage and subchondral bone degenerates water content of cartilage decreases osteophytes form on bone margins heberdens' nodes and bouchards' nodes |
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Heberdens' nodes are on which joint? |
distal interphalangeal |
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Bouchard's nodes are on which joint? |
proximal interphalangeal |
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Rheumatoid arthritis key features: |
chronic inflammation destruction of articular cartilage and ankylosis of joint destroys small joints forms subcutaneous rheumatoid nodes may affect other tissues |
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Define ankylosis |
where bone locks into least painful position |
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how does rheumatoid arthritis affect other tissues or organs? |
lungs - fibrosis eyes - episcleritis |
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Which form of arthritis is due to decrease in water content of cartilage? |
osteo |
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The heart doesn't look like a valentines heart due to it's position in the body. How is it altered? |
Rotated anticlockwise and backwards so that from an anterior perspective the Right side is to the front and the left side is to the back |
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Where is the apex of the heart located? |
5th costal space |
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What are the four borders of the heart and what do they touch? |
Superior - great vessels Inferior - diaphragm Left- L lung Right - R lung |
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What is the base of the heart anatomically? |
Posterior side of the heart |
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What is the anterior surface of the heart touching? |
Sternum |
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What is the cavity that the heart sits in? (doesn't include lungs but does include vessels) |
Mediastinum |
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What is most dominant from an anterior perspective of the heart? |
Right ventricle |
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What separates the right and left ventricles on the anterior surface of the heart? |
The anterior interventricular sulcus |
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What does sulcus refer to? |
a groove or recess |
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What is the name of the sulcus separating the ventricle and atria on the anterior surface of the heart? |
Coronary sulcus |
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What tissue can be found in the sulcuses of the heart? |
adipose tissue |
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What vessel is in the anterior coronary sulcus? |
coronary artery |
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What major vessel is in the anterior interventricular sulcus? |
left anterior descending artery |
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What is the name for small sacs on the atria of the heart? They increase capacity of the heart? |
Auricles |
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What are the major posterior landmarks on the hearts surface |
posterior interventricular sulcus coronary sulcus |
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What is in the posterior coronary sulcus? |
coronary sinus |
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What is in the posterior interventricular sulcus? |
Posterior descending artery either from right or left coronary arteries. |
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What is the pericardium? |
Sac that protects the heart |
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How many layers in the pericardium |
2 |
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What is the outermost layer of the pericardium? |
Fibrous pericardium |
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What are the characteristics of the fibrous pericardium? |
tough + inelastic rests + attached to diaphragm Open end fused to great vessels |
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What is the inner layer of the pericardium? |
Serous Pericardium |
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How many further layers make up the serous pericardium? |
3 |
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What is the outermost layer of the serous pericardium, describe it |
Parietal fused and inseparable from fibrous pericardium |
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What is the innermost layer of the serous pericardium, describe it |
Visceral layer continous to epicardium |
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What lies between the parietal layer and the visceral layer in the pericardium? |
Pericardial cavity Filled with pericardial fluid |
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What is the purpose of pericardial fluid? |
Shock absorption and protection of the heart |
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How many layers are there of the heart wall? |
3 |
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What is the middle layer of the heart wall called? |
Myocardium |
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What is the epicardium? |
The outermost layer of heart Continous with the visceral serous pericardium |
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What is the centre layer of the heart? |
endocardium |
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Which of the layers of the heart are continous with the endothelium of large vessels? |
endocardium |
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Which of the layers of the heart is the cardiac muscle? |
Myocardium |
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Which chamber of the heart receives oxygenated blood from a vessel? (Also name the vessel) |
Pulmonary vein Left atrium |
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Which chamber of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood out of the heart? |
Right ventricle Lungs Pulmonary arteries |
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Which chamber of the heart is connected to the vena cava. What blood does it contain? |
Right atrium Deoxygenated |
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What chamber of the heart has the thickest walls? Where does it pump blood too to warrant such powerful muscle? |
Left Ventricle Systemic circulation / Body |
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What are the two types of valves in the heart? |
atrioventricular + semilunar |
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Where is the only bicuspid valve in the heart? |
Left atrio-ventricular valve |
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If there is one bicuspid valve, what are the other 3? |
Tricuspid |
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Where are the two semilunar valves located? |
At the base of the aorta and the pulmonary artety (between ventricles and vessels) |
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What types of muscles contract to open the valves in the heart |
papillary |
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What connects heart valves to the contraction muscles to open/close them? |
chordae tendinae |
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What is the fossa ovalis's fetal counterpart |
Foramen ovale |
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What is the function of the foramen ovale? |
connect right and left atria bypass pulmonary circulation |
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What causes the foramen ovale to close and eventually form the fossa ovalis? |
the first breath causing a change in pressure flap of muscle closes over hole |
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What are the musculi pectinatae |
comb like muscle folding increases reserve for increased atrial capacity |
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What is the crista terminalis |
connection between auricles smooth surfaced cresent of muscle right atria SA node location |
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What are trabeculae carneae and where are they located? |
ventricles protrusions of muscle prevent suction from sticking sides of ventricle together |
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Off of which chamber would you find the left auricle? |
Left atria |
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Which vessel brings deoxygenated blood into the right atria |
vena cava |
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Which vessel takes deoxygenated blood away from the heart? |
pulmonary artery |
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Which vessel takes oxygenated blood away from the heart? |
aorta |
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Which vessel brings oxygenated blood towards the heart |
pulmonary vein |
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How many branches are on the aortic arch |
3 |
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What does the second branch of the aortic arch do and what is it called? |
take blood to left side of body common carotid |
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what does the third branch of the aortic arch do and what is it called? |
take blood to left arm left subclavian |
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What does the first branch of the aortic arch do and what is it called. |
Brachiocephalic artery splits into right subclavian and right common carotid takes blood to right arm (RS) and right side of body (RCC) |
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How does the blood in the heart reach the heart? |
through the coronary artery (via the aorta) |
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The right coronary artery branches separate into what two vessels? |
posterior interventricular right marginal |
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The left coronary artery branches into what vessels |
circumflex left marginal diagonal anterior interventricular |
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What are the venous vessels of the heart? |
small cardiac vein middle cardiac vein left posterior ventricular vein left marginal vein great cardiac vein |
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What do all of the veins of the heart empty into? |
coronary sinus |
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Where does the coronary sinus take the deoxygenated blood from the heart |
right atrium |
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The RCA (right coronary artery) supplies blood to where? |
RA Most RV Some LV 1/3 of septum SA node in 60% of people AV node in 80% of people |
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What regions does the LCA (left coronary artery) supply blood to in the heart? |
LA Most LV Some RV 2/3 septum SA node in 40% of people AV node in 20% of people |
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What the 4 layers of the GI tract wall? |
mucosa submucosa muscularis serosa |
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What does the mucosa do in the GI tract? |
mucous membrane lines GI tract secrete mucus varying epithelium |
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What does the submucosa do in the GI tract? |
layer of connective tissue blood vessels lymph vessels nerves |
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What does the muscularis do in the GI tract? How many layers are in it and how does each differ? |
made up of 2 layers of smooth muscle inner = circular muscle outer = longitudinal contracts or dilates lumen |
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What does the serosa do in the GI tract? |
connective tissue covering secretes fluid externally lubricates outside of GI tract |
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What marks the superficial boundaries of the oral cavity? |
Ant = lips Laterally = Cheeks Sup = palate Inf = tongue |
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What makes up the exterior, interior and middle of the lips? |
Exterior = skin Interior = stratified squamous epithelium Middle = orbicularis oris muscle |
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What attaches the lips to the gums |
labial frenula |
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What are the two muscles involved in chewing? |
orbicularis oris buccinator |
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What gives the rounded contour to the cheeks |
buccal fat pad |
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What cell type in on the inside of the cheek? |
stratified squamous epithelium |
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What are the two regions of the palate, what are their relative sizes and what is the boundary? |
Hard 2/3 anterior portion Soft 1/3 posterior portion The back teeth line and palatine bone marks the difference |
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What gives the hard palate it's hardness? |
maxillae and palatine bones |
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What makes up the soft palate |
skeletal muscle and connective tissue |
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What is the name of the structure that visibly dangles at the back of the mouth? |
Uvula |
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What is the name of the arches at the back of the oral cavity in the roof of the mouth? |
Pharyngeal arches |
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What is the name of the most anterior pharyngeal arch? |
palatoglossal arch |
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What is the name of the posterior pharyngeal arch? |
palatopharyngeal arch |
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What is the name of the arched opening at the back of the mouth that leads to the pharynx |
Fauces |
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What portion of the tongue is freely moveable? |
2/3rds |
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What attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth? |
lingual frenulum |
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What is the posterior pharyngeal portion of the tongue attached to? |
hyoid bone epiglottis oropharynx |
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What separates the front and back regions of the tongue? |
sulcus terminalis |
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What is different about the structure of the pre-sulcal and post-sulcal tonge? |
Pre has lingual papillae (tastebuds) Post has lingual tonsils (lymphoid nodules) |
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How many muscles are their in the tongue? |
7 pairs |
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What are the two classifications of the tongue muscles and how do they differ? |
intrinsic and extrinsic IN = change shape of tongue EX = gross movement of the tongue |
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How many muscles deal with gross tongue movement? |
3 pairs |
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How many muscles deal with intrinsic tongue movement? |
4 pairs |
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What do we split the dentition into when studying the teeth? |
quadrants |
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How many teeth do children have |
20 |
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What types of teeth do children have and how many of each in a single quadrant? |
2 incisors 1 canine 2 molar |
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How many teeth do adults usually have? |
32 |
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How many adult teeth are there in a quadrant? Name the tooth types. |
2 incisor 1 canine 2 premolar 3 molar |
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What is the last adult tooth to emerge and at what age? |
Wisdom teeth or 3rd molar 25 years old |
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What is the name of the bone in which teeth sit? |
alveolar bone |
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What is the anatomical name for gums |
gingiva |
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What is the difference between a clinical crown and an anatomical crown? |
Clinical crown - all of the enamel that can be seen Anatomical crown - all of the enamel, even the parts hidden by the gum line |
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What is the top layer of the tooth called? |
Enamel |
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What is the layer of the tooth deep to the enamel called? |
dentin |
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What is the layer of the tooth deep to dentin called? |
pulp cavity |
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What is the apical foramen |
the point where the root canal leaves the tooth and enters the jaw bone |
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what is the name of the ligament that hoes the tooth and the alveolar bone together? |
periodontal ligament |
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What 3 general regions can the anatomy of a tooth be subdivided? |
crown neck root |
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What is the name of the layer between the tooth and the periodontal ligament? |
cementum |
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Where does the pharynx connect to the digestive system? |
oesophagus |
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Where does the pharynx connect to the respiratory system? |
larynx |
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What are the 3 regions of the pharynx |
nasopharynx oropharynx laryngopharynx |
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Where is the nasopharynx |
behind nasal cavity |
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Where is the oropharynx |
behind the oral cavity |
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Where is the laryngopharynx |
behind larynx |
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What lines the nasopharynx? |
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium |
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What lines the oropharynx and laryngopharynx |
moist stratified squamous epithelium |
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What are the 3 muscles of the pharynx |
superior, middle and inferior muscles |
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How are the 3 muscles of the pharynx joined? |
posterior walls of oropharynx and laryngopharynx |
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What is the purpose of the muscles of the pharynx? |
constriction for swallowing etc |
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How long is the oesophagus and what does it connect? |
25cm long laryngopharynx to the stomach |
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What cavities does the oesophagus pass through? |
thoracic to abdominal |
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The oesophagus passes directly through the diaphragm. What is the name and location (vertebrae) of this point? |
oesophageal hiatus T10 |
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How many sphincters are there in the oesophagus? |
2 |
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What are the oesophageal sphincters |
upper sphincter near epiglottis lower (Cardiac) sphincter on entrance to stomach |
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What letter shape is the stomach? It gives rise to the lesser and greater curvatures |
J |
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What is the name for folds in the wall in the stomach? |
Rugae |
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The region of the stomach directly connected to the esophagus is known as what? |
Cardiac region |
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The bottom region of the stomach is known as what? |
pyloric region |
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What is the name of the bottom sphincter in the stomach? |
pyloric sphincter |
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What is the name for the top region of the stomach |
fundus |
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What cell type is in the lining (mucosa) of the stomach? |
simple columnar epithelium |
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What is special about the muscularis of the stomach |
there is a third (inner) layer of oblique muscle |
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What are the two portions of the respiratory system? |
Conditioning Portion Gasseous Exchange / Respiratory Portion |
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What is the purpose of the conditioning portion of the Respiratory system? |
humidifies, warms and filters air also used for sound production and sense of smell |
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What two regions can the conditioning portion be split into? |
Upper and lower respiratory tract |
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What is the upper respiratory tract? |
nasal cavity paranasal sinuses pharynx larynx |
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What is the lower respiratoy tract |
trachea bronchi bronchioles until the terminal bronchioles |
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How many generations of dividing occur between the trachea and the alveoli
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about 25 |
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What pattern do the bronchi divide in? |
fractile |
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What is the name for the splitting of the trachea into the two primary bronchi? |
carina or tracheal bifurcation |
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What are the two surfaces of the lungs called? |
costal and mediastinal surfaces |
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How many lobes are there in the right lung? |
3 - superior, middle and inferior |
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How many lobes are there in the left lung?
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2 - superior and inferior |
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How many fissures are there in each lung?
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Right - 2 - oblique and horizontal Left - 1 - oblique |
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What is the function of type 1 pneumocytes |
forms barrier in alveoli for gas exchange |
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What part of pneumocyte type 1 form makes it good at it's function? |
thin/squamous cells |
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What is the function of type 2 pneumocytes and how does their form enable this? |
Provide pulmonary surfactant for alveolar surfaces Cuboidal shape with laminar bodies cuboidal = lots of multilaminar bodies multi laminar bodies produce the surfactant |
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What are the names of the two pleural membranes? What is each attached to? |
Outer = parietal, attached to costal wall
Inner = visceral, attached to lung surface |
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What is between the two pleura? |
pleural cavity small amount of fluid negative pressure |
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What structures are required for quiet breathing |
mainly just the diaphragm |
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What structures are required for active breathing |
diaphragm and intercostal muscles |
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What structures are required for extreme breathing |
diaphragm, intercostal muscles and accessory muscles of respiration in the trunk and neck |
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What happens to the position of the diaphragm when it contracts?
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moves down becomes flatter |
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What would happen if air got into the pleural cavity? AKA Pleural effusion |
the two pleura wouldn't stick to each other as negative pressure would be lost lung would collapse/recoil as nothing is holding the visceral pleural out to stretch the lung |
|
|
How many layers of intercostal muscles are there? |
3 |
|
|
What is different about the external and internal intercostal muscles? |
lie in a different direction |
|
|
Which of the intercostal muscles is involve in breathing in? What does it do? |
external lifts the ribs up and out |
|
|
Where are the intercostal vessels and nerves located? |
protected underneath the rib bones |
|
|
How many ribs are there in the human body |
12 pairs |
|
|
What are the 3 classifications of ribs |
true false floating |
|
|
What category are the most superior set of ribs and how many are there? |
Ribs 1 - 6 true ribs |
|
|
What is the definition of a true rib
|
articulate with the sternum via costal cartilages |
|
|
What are the middle set of ribs called and how many are there? |
Ribs 7 - 10 False ribs |
|
|
What is the definition of a false rib |
articulate with costal cartilages above rather than sternum |
|
|
What is the definition of a floating rib. Which ribs are they? |
Ribs that do not articulate anteriorly Ribs 11 and 12 |
|
|
What part of the rib connects to the transverse process of the vertebrae |
tubercle of the rib |
|
|
What part of the rib connects to the vertebral body? |
head of the rib |
|
|
What is the name of the bone that sits superior to the sternum and medial to the clavicles?
|
manubrium |
|
|
What is the name of the process of bone at the inferior end of the sternum? |
xiphoid process |
|
|
What is the name of the tendons that connect the vertebrae to the diaphragm? |
Left and right crus |
|
|
What is the space between the ribs and the diaphragm called? |
costo-diaphragmatic recess |
|
|
What is the structure of the diaphragm |
parachute shaped muscle central tendon radial muscles originating from the ribs, sternum and spine. |
|
|
How many rings of cartilage does the trachea have?
|
16 - 25 |
|
|
What structures pass through the root of the lung? |
primary bronchus pulmonary artery pulmonary veins (2) bronchial vessels lymphatics autonomic nerves |
|
|
Are salivary glands exocrine or endocrine? |
exocrine - they have a duct |
|
|
Name the major pairs of salivary glands |
parotid submandibular sublingual |
|
|
What are the minor salivary glands called on the cheek, tongue, palate and lips respectively? |
Cheek = buccal Tongue = lingual Palate = palatine Lips = Labial |
|
|
What is the cheekbone called? |
Zygomatic arch |
|
|
Which pair of salivary glands are the largest? |
Parotid |
|
|
Where does the parotid gland's duct secrete saliva? |
Near the second upper molar |
|
|
Which salivary gland is below the tongue? |
Sublingual |
|
|
Where is the opening for the submandibular duct? |
at the side of the labial frenulum |
|
|
What is notable about the duct for the sublingual gland? |
It is not we definied Glands open into floor of oral cavity through 10-12 small ducts |
|
|
What type of gland are the three main salivary glands? |
Compound acinar/alveoli glands |
|
|
What can be said about saliva from each salivary gland? |
It is different gland to gland |
|
|
What two cell types form salivary glands? |
serous cells mucous cells |
|
|
Which salivary gland is comprised mainly of mucous cells? |
sublingual |
|
|
Which salivary gland is comprised mainly of serous cells? |
Parotid |
|
|
Which salivary gland is comprised of a roughly even mixture of serous and mucous cells? |
submandibular |
|
|
What are the two main lobes of the liver called? |
Right and left lobes |
|
|
What are the two secondary lobes of the liver called? |
Caudate and quadrate lobe |
|
|
To which primary lobe, do the secondary lobes belong? |
Right lobe |
|
|
What are the features of the anterior surface of the liver? |
falciform ligament round ligament |
|
|
What organ is visible from the posterior surface of the liver? |
Gall bladder
|
|
|
What layer almost completely covers the outside of the liver? |
visceral peritoneum |
|
|
What vessel separates the right and caudate lobe? |
Inferior vena cava |
|
|
What is the shape of a lobule of the liver? |
hexagonal |
|
|
What cells are found in the sinusoid regions of the liver lobules? |
Kupffer Cells |
|
|
What is a portal triad and where is it located? |
in the corner of each lobule bundle of 3 vessels - branch of hepatic artery - branch of portal vein - branch of heptic bile duct |
|
|
The central veins in each liver lobule will eventually join together to form what vessel. This eventually leads to what larger vessel |
hepatic veins join inferior vena cava |
|
|
Small vessels from the bile duct within the hepatic plates which collect bile produced in the liver are called what? |
Canaliculi |
|
|
At what point does the common hepatic duct leave the liver? Where does it head? |
Porta hepatis towards the duodenum |
|
|
Where does the liver get 72% of it's blood from? |
hepatic portal vein |
|
|
Why does deoxygenated blood from other organs flow through the liver before going to the heart? |
It brings products from digestion that the liver processes -detoxification -metabolism -excretion of bilirubin -storage of vitamins etc |
|
|
What do Kupffler cells do? |
phagocytosis - immune response |
|
|
What enters the liver at the porta hepatis |
hepatic artery + hepatic portal vein |
|
|
Which organ does blood from the stomach pass through before passing into the vena cava? |
liver |
|
|
What are the names of the 3 midline branches of the abdominal aorta |
coeliac trunk superior mesenteric inferior mesenteric |
|
|
From which branch of the the abdominal aorta does the hepatic artery arise from? |
coeliac trunk |
|
|
Along with the superior mesenteric vein, what other vein empties into the hepatic portal vein |
splenic vein |
|
|
What are some of the functions of the liver? |
Metabolism Detoxification Excrete bilirubin Storage Synthesis Phagocytosis |
|
|
What is the carbohydrate metabolism in the liver? |
glucose to glycogen glycogen to glucose amino +lactic acids to glucose |
|
|
what is the lipid metabolism in the liver? |
store triglycerides and synthesises lipproteins |
|
|
What does the liver store? |
glycogen, vitamins and minerals |
|
|
what is synthesised in the liver? |
bile salts used for emulsification and absorption of cholesterol |
|
|
What fruit does the gall bladder look like? |
pear |
|
|
to what surface of the liver is the gall bladder attached, and via what? |
via cystic duct
inferior surface |
|
|
What are the names for the layers of the gall bladder? |
tunics - inner mucosa -muscularis -serosa |
|
|
What is a feature of the inner mucosa of the gall bladder?
|
rugae |
|
|
What is the function of the gall bladder |
store + concentrate bile |
|
|
Which retroperitoneal gland lies transversely and posterior to the greater curvature of the stomach? |
pancreas |
|
|
What are the 3 regions of the pancreas? |
head body and tail |
|
|
Is the pancreas exocrine or endocrine |
both |
|
|
What is endocrine region of the pancreas? What are the functions? |
cells are pancreatic islets which secrete hormones directly into blood stream |
|
|
Which part of the pancreas makes up 1% and 99% comparatively? |
1% - endocrine 99% = exocrine |
|
|
What is the exocrine region of the pancreas and what is the function? |
acing cells secrete pancreatic enzymes into digestive system via a duct |
|
|
What to ducts form the common bile duct |
cystic duct and common hepatic duct |
|
|
pancreatic secretions pass into small ducts which unite to form which two ducts |
main pancreatic duct and accessory duct |
|
|
what is the different between the main pancreatic and the accessory duct? |
Main pancreatic = joins common bile duct
Accessory = empties directly into the duodenum |
|
|
At what point do the main pancreatic duct and common bile duct meet? Where do they enter the duodenum |
hepatopancreatic ampulla enter at major duodenal papilla |
|
|
What is the name of the layer that joins organs to each other and abdominal walls? |
peritoneum |
|
|
What are the 4 parts of the large intestine? |
ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid |
|
|
Which part of the colon is S shaped?
|
sigmoid |
|
|
what is the name of the large sheet of fibrous tissue that covers the small intestine if the front wall of the abdomen was removed??
|
greater omentum |
|
|
what are the 3 regions of the small intestine |
ileum, duodenum, jejunum |
|
|
what is the name of the sheet that connects the small intestine to the wall of the dorsal peritoneum |
mesentery proper |
|
|
what is the name of the sphincter at the end of the small intestine |
ileocecal junction |
|
|
what is the shape of the first part of the duodenum |
c shaped |
|
|
what is the region that separates the jejunum from the duodenum? |
duodenojejunal flexure |
|
|
what is the only part of the duodenum that is peritonised |
short superior region |
|
|
What is the name for the circular folds of the small intestine mucosa? |
plicae circularis |
|
|
As you go down the small intestine what is noticeable about the cell wall features? |
vili less prominent diameter and thickness of wall decreases |
|
|
what are peyer patches |
lymphoid follicles in submucosa of ileum |
|
|
what is the name for the special mucus secreting glands of the duodenum |
brunner |
|
|
what 4 types of columnar epithelium cover vili in the small intestine? |
absorptive goblet granular endocrine |
|
|
What is a lacteal in the small intestine |
lymph vessel in villi |
|
|
What are the functions of the large intestine |
reabsorbs water compact intestinal contents into faeces absorb vitamins home to comensal bacteria storage of faeces |
|
|
what is the name of the region of the large intestine connected to the ileum |
cecum |
|
|
what is the name of the corners of the large intestine between ascending + transverse colon and the transverse and descending colon? |
hepatic + splenic flexures |
|
|
what structure protrudes posteriorly from the cecum? |
appendix |
|
|
What is the mucosal lining of the colon formed into? |
crypts - straight tubular glands |
|
|
what are haustra? |
permit expansion and extension of the large intestine (the cloud-like shape) |
|
|
what is the name of the 3 longitudinal bands of the colon |
taeniae coli |
|
|
what are fat filled pouches of the colon? |
epiploic appendages |
|
|
How long is the rectum |
12cm |
|
|
what are transverse rectal folds known as |
the rectal valves |
|
|
What cells are present in the rectal mucosa |
simple columnar epithelium goblet cells |
|
|
what are anal columns and what is between them? |
longitudinal folds of epithelium anal sinuses between |
|
|
Which anal sphincter is voluntary and which one is involuntary? |
internal = involuntary external = voluntary |
|
|
Where is the calyx |
kidney urine passes through towards pelvis of kidney |
|
|
Where is the hilium |
collecting area of kidney |
|
|
What does the spinal cord run through? |
vertebral column |
|
|
Between which vertebrae does the spinal chord run through |
from foramen magnum -> L1-2 |
|
|
How many pairs of spinal nerves does the spinal cord give rise to? |
31 pairs |
|
|
All pairs of spinal cord nerves are mixed except for 2, true or false? |
False - all pairs re mixed nerves |
|
|
Is the spinal cord uniform in diameter? |
No |
|
|
Where is the spinal cord widest? |
the cervical and lumbosacral enlargments |
|
|
What is the name of the tapered inferior end of the spinal cord? |
conus medullaris |
|
|
What is the name of the location of lumbar and sacral nerve roots? |
caude equina |
|
|
Where is the inferior end of the spinal cord? |
L1 - L2 |
|
|
What is the first meninges of the spinal cord to develop, this occurs at 8 weeks of gestation? |
Dura mater |
|
|
Where is the root of the 1st sacral nerve throughout development |
S1 vertebrae |
|
|
What is the position of the conus medullaris throughout the development of the spinal cord? |
14 weeks gestation = S1 Birth = L3 Adulthood = L1 |
|
|
How many weeks after fertilisation does the pia mater and arachnoid mater develop? |
14 weeks |
|
|
What are the 4 main protective structures of the spinal cord? |
Vertebral column Ligaments Meninges CSF |
|
|
What does the vertebral column do? |
- solid + flexible protective casing for spinal cord - intervertebral discs to absorb shock - transmit weight from trunk to lower limb - attachment point for rib + muscles |
|
|
What is the name of the ligament that limits potentially damaging movement in the spine? |
ligamentum flavum |
|
|
What are the 3 main ligaments of the spinal cord? |
anterior longitudinal posterior longitudinal ligamentum flavum |
|
|
What is the role of the meninges |
3 protective layers contain blood supply and CSF barrier for neurotoxins |
|
|
What is CSF? |
cerebrospinal fluid nourishes cord suspended within it |
|
|
How many segments and how many vertebrae in each of the 5 regions of the spine? |
Cervical - 8 segments - 7 vertebrae Thoracic - 12 segments - 12 vertebrae Lumbar - 5 segments - 5 vertebrae Sacral - 5 segments - 5 fused vertebrae Coccyx - 1 segment - 4 fused vertebrae |
|
|
Which regions of the spine are convex posteriorly
|
thoracic saccral |
|
|
What regions of the spine are concave posteriorly? |
cervical lumbar |
|
|
Between which meninges is CSF located? |
pia mater and arachnoid mater |
|
|
Between which meninges is the subdural space? |
arachnoid mater and the dura mater |
|
|
What is the location of the epidural space in relation to the dura mater |
superficial to the dura mater |
|
|
What is the name of the flat membrane formed from pia mater |
lingamentum denticulum |
|
|
Where is the lingamentum denticulum located? |
along the midline between the dorsal and the ventral nerve roots |
|
|
What 3 groups of arteries supply the spinal cord? |
anterior spinal artery posterior spinal arteries radicular arteries |
|
|
Describe venous drainage of the spinal cord |
anterior and posterior median spinal veins anterolateral and posterolateral paired veins anterior and posterior radicular veins internal vertebral venous plexus |
|
|
Where are the anterior and posterior median spinal veins located? |
along the midline |
|
|
Where are the anterolateral and posterolateral paired veins located? |
near lines of attachment of ventral and dorsal roots |
|
|
Where is the internal vertebral venous plexus located |
in the epidural space |
|
|
What produces CSF? |
choroid plexus |
|
|
Where are the choroid plexuses located?
|
one in each ventricle |
|
|
Once produced, where does the CSF flow? |
through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space |
|
|
What does CSF flow through to get from the ventricles to the subarachnoid space?
|
the cerebral aqueduct and then thee median and lateral apertures |
|
|
What part of the spinal cord does CSF flow through when leaving the brain? |
the central canal |
|
|
How is CSF absorbed into the dural venous sinuses? |
via arachnoid vili |
|
|
What procedure is carried out to obtain CSF from a patient? |
a lumbar puncture |
|
|
where does a lumbar puncture take CSF from? |
subarachnoid space |
|
|
Where is the needle inserted for a lumbar puncture? Why here? |
between L3 and L4 or L4 and L5 this is inferior to the spinal cord - avoid damage |
|
|
What is a characteristic of the subarachnoid space in the region where lumbar punctures are carried out, which makes this procedure easier. |
Lumbar cistern - an expanded subarachnoid space also inferior to spinal cord- no risk of damage to nervous tissue |
|
|
What is the posterior horn of the spinal cord? |
made of grey matter central part of cord posterior |
|
|
What information does the posterior horn carry (which direction) |
sensory - afferent information I - VI noxious proprioceptive |
|
|
What information does the anterior horn of the spinal cord carry |
motor (efferent information) VIII - IX |
|
|
What is the grey matter of the spinal cord |
posterior, anterior and lateral horn. |
|
|
Descending tracts of the spinal cord carries what information? |
motor - efferent |
|
|
What are the two groups of descending tracts in the spinal cord? |
pyramidal and extrapyramidal |
|
|
What is another name for pyramidal tracts? |
corticospinal tracts |
|
|
What kind of movement do pyramidal or corticospinal tracts innervate?
|
voluntary |
|
|
What kind of movement does extrapyramidal tracts innervate?
|
everything that isn't motor |
|
|
What is another name for extrapyramidal tracts? |
indirect pathways |
|
|
What are the two neurones that are involved with the motor pathways? |
upper motor neuron and lower motor neuron |
|
|
What is the final common pathway for all muscles?
|
anterior horn motor neurone |
|
|
What kind of information do ascending tracts carry? |
sensory |
|
|
What are the 4 types of ascending tracts |
posterior column spinothalamic spinolimbic/spionreticular spinocerebellar |
|
|
Which tracts of the spinal cord send impulses to the sensory cortex
|
posterior column and spinothalamic pathways |
|
|
Which ascending tracts of the spinal cord do not contribute to sensory perception, and where does their impulse go to? |
spinocerebellar tracts cerebellum |
|
|
What is the pathway for sensing fine touch, proprioception and vibration? |
primary sensory neurone cross midline in medula to secondary sensory neuron synapse with other sensory pathways in thalamus sensation perceived in primary somatic sonsory cortex |
|
|
What is the pathway for sensing noiception, temperature and coarse touch? |
primary sensory neurone sneds impulse to secondary sensory neurone in the spinal cord. Sencondary sensory neuron sends impulse to thalamus to synapse with other sensory pathways sensation perceived in primary somatic sensory cortex |
|
|
What are the White matter motor/efferent pathways of the spinal cord? |
lateral corticospinal tract rubrospinal tract reticulospinal tract tectospinal tract vestibulospinal tract medial corticospinal tract |
|
|
What are the white matter sensory/afferent pathways of the spinal cord?
|
posterior column spinocerebellar tract spinothalamic tract spino-olivary fibers |
|
|
In the efferent lateral corticospinal tract of the spinal cord, are the bands of nerves arranged with the most superficial bands supplying the most superior regions of the spine or the most inferior? |
Saccral is most superficial then lumbar, thoracic and then cervical. The most superficial regions go to the most inferior regions. |
|
|
In the afferent posterior column of the spinal cord, does the tissue that leads to innervate the cervical region most lateral or medial? |
lateral from medial to lateral the regions are ascending; i.e. medial - sacral nerves then - lumbar, thoracic, lateral - cervical |
|
|
What is the function of the spinal cord? |
reflexes carry sensory info from the body to the brain carry motor info from brain to body |
|
|
What are the key pieces of motor information sent from brain to body via spinal cord? |
voluntary movement posture breathing |
|
|
What is somestesis |
sensing touch |
|
|
what is thermosensation |
sensing temperature |
|
|
what is nociception |
sensing pain |
|
|
what is kinesthesia
|
sensing position and movement |
|
|
Briefly outline a spinal reflex |
stimulus - i.e. burnt hand impulse flows towards spinal cord away from receptor along afferent neurone dendrite throough interneuron through efferent neurone impulse to effector organ .e. muscle contraction |
|
|
What are the two divisions of PNS |
sensory and motor (AKA afferent and efferent) |
|
|
What are the 2 divisions of the sensory or afferent nervous system |
somatic or visceral |
|
|
give examples of somatic sensory stimuli |
touch pressure pain vibration temperature |
|
|
give examples of visceral sensory stimuli |
stretch temperature chemical change irritation in viscera nausea |
|
|
What are the two divisions of the motor or efferent nervous system? |
somatic or autonomic nervous system |
|
|
The majority of spinal nerves emerge where in relation to their corresponding vertebrae? |
inferior to vertebrae |
|
|
What are the exceptions to the general rule for spinal nerves emerging inferior to corresponding vertebrae?
|
C1 and C8 |
|
|
Where does spinal nerve C1 emerge?
|
above atlas |
|
|
Where does spinal nerve C8 emerge?
|
below C7 |
|
|
What is the name for an area innervated by a single spinal nerve |
dermatome |
|
|
What dermatomes do cervical nerves innervate? |
upper limb and body |
|
|
what dermatomes do thoracic nerves innervate |
trunk |
|
|
what dermatomes do the lumbar and sacral nerves innervate? |
lower limbs |
|
|
What specific functions are attributed to the cervical nerves? |
breathing heart rate upper limb movements head and neck movemments |
|
|
What specific functions are attributed to the thoracic nerves? |
sympathetic tone trunk stability |
|
|
What specific functions are attributed to the lumbar nerves?
|
lower limb movements |
|
|
what specific functions are attributed to the sacral nerves? |
bowel and bladder function |
|
|
What is paralysis |
loss of motor function |
|
|
what is paraesthesia |
loss of sensation |
|
|
what is hemiplegia? |
loss sensation or movement in right or left half of body |
|
|
what is paraplegia? |
loss of sensation or movement in the lower half of the body |
|
|
what is quadriplegia? |
the loss of sensation or movement below the head or neck |
|
|
What is the origin and function of the spinothalamic tract |
Origin - dorsal horn of spinal cord F - conveys info about pain and temperature |
|
|
What is the origin and function of spinolimbic, spinomesencephalic and spinoreticular tracts |
O - dorsal horn of spinal cord F - non localised perception of pain, arousal, reflexive, motivational and analgesic responses to nociception |
|
|
What is the origin and function of the spinocerebellar tract |
O - peripheral receptors or dorsal horn of spinal cord f - proprioceptive information, info on activity in upper motor neurone pathways and spinal interneurones |
|
|
Who wrote Cerebra Anatome, the first book about the brain |
Thomas Willis |
|
|
What is the circle of Willis? |
where branches of the basilar artery meet with the middle cerebral and internal carotid arteries. |
|
|
What are the 3 main regions of the brain |
Hindbrain
Midbrain Forebrain |
|
|
What are the 2 divisions of the forebrain
|
telencephalon diencephalon |
|
|
Which portion of the forebrain is anterior?
|
telencephalon |
|
|
What is another word for forebrain
|
prosencephalon |
|
|
What is another word for midbrain |
mesencephalon |
|
|
What are the two regions of the hindbrain |
metencephalon Myelencephalon |
|
|
What is another word for hindbrain |
myelencephalon |
|
|
What are the subdivisions of the tenelcephalon |
cortex basal ganglia limbic system |
|
|
What are the subdivisions of the diencephalon
|
thalamus hypothalamus |
|
|
What are the subdivisions of the hindbrain |
pons, cerebellum and medulla |
|
|
What are the Lobes of the brain called ( remember the one that is deep) |
frontal parietal occipital temporal limbic |
|
|
What is the name for the groove between the parietal lobe and frontal lobe |
central sulcus |
|
|
What is the name for the groove between the temporal lobe and frontal lobe |
lateral sulcus |
|
|
What is the name of the sulcus, posterior to the central sulcus that runs deep between the limbic and frontal lobes? |
sulcus cinguli |
|
|
What is the name for the sulcus deep to the parietal lobe and superficial to the limbic lobe |
sub-parietal sulcus |
|
|
What is the name of the sulcus between the parietal and occipital lobes? |
parieto-occipital sulcus |
|
|
Where are the 3 brodmann areas? - give their names if they have them or locations. |
Area 41/42 - Temporal lobe Area 44/45 - Broca's area - Temporal lobe Area 17/18 - Occipital lobe |
|
|
Where is the primary motor cortex located |
frontal lobe precentral gyrus anterior to central sulcus |
|
|
What are the main areas controlled by the primary motor cortex |
hand and face |
|
|
Does the primary motor cortex control voluntary or involuntary movement |
voluntary |
|
|
What are the 4 areas of motor planning |
primary motor cortex supplementary motor area broca's area premotor area |
|
|
What is the function of the primary motor cortex
|
control voluntrary movements |
|
|
What is the function of the premotor area
|
control of trunk anticipatory posural adjustments |
|
|
what is the function of the supplementary motor area |
initiation of movement, orientation planning, bimanual sequential movements |
|
|
What is the function of broca's area? |
motor control of speech |
|
|
Damage to motor planning areas can lead to what two conditions?
|
Apraxia and Broca's aphasia |
|
|
What is Apraxia
|
inability to perform movements despite intact muscles |
|
|
What is aphasia |
impaired speaking and writing |
|
|
Where is the primary visual cortex? |
At the back of the brain |
|
|
What is the path of visual information from the eyes to the primary visual cortex? |
eyes optic nerve via optic chiasm via thalamus to visual cortices |
|
|
The right eye detects something in the right visual field. Which side of the brain does the optic nerve go through? |
Left |
|
|
Where is the point where the two optic nerves cross from right and left eyes to the opposite brain hemispheres?
|
optic chiasm |
|
|
What visual information is discriminated by the primary visual cortex/
|
shape, size, location and texture |
|
|
What visual information is obtained in the secondary visual cortex?
|
colour and motion |
|
|
Where does the information from the eyes get conveyed, after analysis in the secondary cortex? |
rest of cortex for response |
|
|
What is Broca's language centre? |
region of frontal lobe control movement of face involved in speech |
|
|
What do lesions of the broca's language centre result in |
expressive aphasia |
|
|
What is the difference between expressive and receptive aphasia |
expressive - difficulty with verbal expression slow, laboured speech. Telegraphic style Receptive - difficulty understanding speech of others - lose ability to monitor their conversation |
|
|
Who was Pierre Paul Broca?
|
french pathologist assigned motor speech function to inferior frontal gyrus |
|
|
Who was Carl Wernicke? |
german neurologist worked on language processing |
|
|
Where is Wernicke's area? |
superior temporal gyrus left hemisphere |
|
|
What does Wernicke's area do? |
helps to understand spoken word |
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The prefrontal cortex has links with all parts of neocortex except from where... |
primary motor and sensory |
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How does the prefrontal cortex link to the contralateral side of the brain? |
corpus callosum |
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What kind of brain function is the frontal cortex involved in |
executive function; - abstract though - planning - decision making - judgment - anticipating outcome - social behavioru |
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What are schizophrenic negative symptoms associated with, in terms of the frontal lobe? |
hypofrontality |
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What is the corpus callosum made of? |
large band of white matter |
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What are the substructures of the corpus callosum?
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genu rostrum trunk or body splenium |
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What does the corpus callosum do? |
connect left and right hemisphere |
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Where is the olfactory cortex located? |
on the lateral sulcus between frontal and temporal lobes |
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What is the cortex posterior to the central sulcus |
somatosensory cortex |
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What is the ridge along the midline of the cerebellum called"
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vermis |
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What are the two lobes of the cerebellum called?
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anterior and posterior lobes |
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Which lobe of the cerebellum is bigger?
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posterior lobe |
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The small bands of the cerebellum are called... |
folia |
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What separates the two lobes of the cerebellum>
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primary fissures |
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What are the right and left sides of the cerebellum called?
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hemispheres |
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After how many days into gestation does the cerebellum form, approximately? |
50 days |
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Lesions of the vermis can cause what |
inability to stand upright nystagmus impaired eye scanning |
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Tumours that cause lesions of the vermis of the cerebellum are called;
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medulloblastoma |
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Diseased anterior lobes of the cerebellum can cause what symptom |
staggering, drunken gait when sober |
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What can cause disease to the anterior lobe of the cerebellum? |
Chronic alcoholism |
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Disease of the neocerebellar cortex can cause what symptoms
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incoordination of voluntary movements action tremor |
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What specifically in the neocerebellar cortex becomes diseased causing action tremors?
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superior cerebellar peduncle |
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What is the basal ganglia? |
important subcortical system regulate voluntary movement |
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What substructures are in the basal ganglia
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striatum paalidum sub thalamic nucleus |
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What makes up the striatum of the basal ganglia? |
caudate nucleus putamen |
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What makes up the pallidum of the basal ganglia
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internal and external globes pallidus |
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What pathway links the substrata nigra and striatum of the basal ganglia |
nigrostriatal pathway |
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What neurotransmitter is used in the nigrostriatal pathway during motor activity?
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dopamine |
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What disease is caused by degradation of the nigrostriatal dopamine neurones? This is the cause of the motor symptoms of the disease?
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Parkinsons |
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What is the most superior part of the basal ganglia |
caudate nucleus |
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What is the most lateral part of the basal ganglia
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putamen |
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What is median to the putamen of the basal ganglia?
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globus pallidus |
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The substantial nigra is the most inferior part of the basal ganglia, what is directly superior to it? |
subthalamic nucleus |
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What is the limbic system;s function |
emotional response - fear - anxiety -aggresion - pleasure plus memory appetite and sleep |
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What are the key structures of the limbic system? |
cingulate gyrus fornix thalamus stria terminalis septal nuclei amygdala hippocampus hypothalamus |
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What role does the septal nuclei play in the limbic system
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regulate social behaviour |
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What role does the amygdala play in the limbic system
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fear and anxiety social learning (interpret facial expression, body language, social signals) |
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What role does the hippocampus play in the limbic system |
learning, memory, response to stress and mood convert short term to long term memory |
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What role does the hypothalamus play in the limbic system |
neuroendocrine stress response sleep appetite body temp reproductive functions |
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lesions of the hippocampus lead to... |
memory impairments |
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Where is the amygdala? |
temporal lobe anterior to hippocampus |
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Lesions of the amygdala can result in?
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fearless behaviour
risk taking poor social judgement |
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Heightened activation of the amygdala is linked to what disease?
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PTSD anxiety disorders |
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What size is the amygdala in a) children with autism b) schizophrenic patients in relation to the normal human size |
autism - larger schizophrenia - smaller |
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Where is the hypothalamus located? |
anterior/inferior to thalamus floor of 3rd ventricle |
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Where does the limbic "reward pathway" run from and to? |
from ventral segmental area to ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) |
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How does addiction relate to the reward pathway? |
loss of behavioural control over drug taking stimulates reward pathway |
