Hp 350 Midterm 1

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Three stages in Developing Testable hypotheses

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1. Initial thinking - generate research ideas

2. Plausibility - define constructs, shape and polish ideas into hypotheses

3. Acceptability - define elements of hypothesis i.e. IV and DV

determine whether hypothesis is plausible and testable

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Theory

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organizes knowledge, explains laws, predicts new laws and guides research

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hypothesis

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conjectural statement or supposition

derived from a theory

provides specifics on how to test a theory

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three types of research

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descriptive - description of what happens behaviorally

relational - investigate relationships between two or more variables

experimental - identify causes through experiment

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Working hypotheses must satisfy three criteria

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correspondence with reality

coherence and parsimony

falsifiability

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systematic observation

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scientific research requires systematic observation methods

observation - viewing an occurrence for a scientific purpose

-not self administered survey

systematic - observation follows a particular plan

-not casual interviewing or observing

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qualitative research

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narrative form

describe, generate hypotheses, formulates theories

design: predetermined and structured

-doesn't change during course of study

used to test hypothesis

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quantitative research

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numerical or graphic form

test theories

estimate magnitude/strength of relationships b/w variables

test causality

design: general, evolving & flexible to allow change, used to explore unknown topics

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naturalistic observation

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observations of behavior in a natural state

roles: complete participant

observer-as-participant

complete observer

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experimental observation

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observations that are manipulated by researcher, by means of intervention

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complete participant

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takes part in all aspects of life among those being studied

~participant observation

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observer-as-participant

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take part in some activities, mainly observes persons for brief periods primarily to recruit for interviews

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Complete observer

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researcher is fundamentally removed from setting and does not interact with persons in setting

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unobtrusive observation

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generally non-reactive

participants are unaware of being studied, even after the study is done

uses concealment so there are some ethical issues

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types of unobtrusive observations

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archival records - data already collected

physical traces - material evidence

simple observations - naturalistic

contrived observations - experimental

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5 Principles of Ethics

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1. respect for autonomy

2. beneficence & non-maleficence

3. justice

4. trust

5. fidelity & scientific integrity

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Consent form

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Written informed consent must be provided

adults (18+) - participant consent form only

children (7-17) - parental permission form, child's assent

young children ( under 7) - parental permission form

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self-report measures

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information of or data that come from within the study participants

-includes standardized measures i.e. CES-D, which are developed and scored according to certain rules

most common data collection instrument

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closed-ended questions

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most common is rating scale

three common formats: numerical, forced-choice, and graphic

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numerical scale

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rating scale that corresponds with sequences of numbers defined by researcher

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forced-choice scale

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numerical scale that forces subjects into making a definite statement

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graphic scale

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scale that uses straight line to mark responses

bipolar or segmented formatt

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semantic differential scale

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used when intensity of measure is subjective

three primary dimensions - evaluation, potency, activity

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numerical measurement

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Nominal(gender,ethnicity)has categories.

Ordinal(socialclass)has order.

Interval (temperature, SAT) has no true 0. There is no absence of temperature. 80 degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees.

Ratio(height,weight)has a true 0 such that 0 means you don’t weigh anything. Dividing it has meaning. One person’s weight can be a half another person’s weight.

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types of rating errors in measurement

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central tendency bias

leniency bias

acquiescent response set

floor/ceiling effect

halo effect

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problems with self-report

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could yield inaccurate answers bc of memory

subjects may provide socially-desirable responses to protect or enhance self during interview

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reliability

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test-retest

internal consistency

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validity

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content

criterion

construct

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content validity

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face validity

whether a test or measure adequately samples or captures relevant material

test with good content validity should cover all aspects of content that are relevant

test should sample range of behavior that is represented by theoretical concept being measured

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criterion validity

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concurrent validity - criterion validity of a test with criterion in the present

predictive validity - criterion validity with criterion in the future

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construct validity

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can be assess by testing for convergent validity or discriminant validity

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convergent validity

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reflects a convergence of similar constructs or traits across different measures

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discriminant validity

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reflects a divergence of different constructs or traits across different measures

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research

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the process of systematically and carefully investigating a subject in order to learn or discover new information about the world

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health

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a construct that extends over all aspects of physical, mental, and social well-being

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health researchers

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people who examine the biological, socioeconomic, and environmental factors that contribute to health and to disease, illness, disability, and death

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laboratory studies

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typically conducted in the controlled environment of a special research facility

-molecular bio, microbio, immunology, genetics

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population-based studies

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typically conducted using human subjects

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The Acute disorders

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short-term medical illnesses

-recover or die

i.e. tuberculosis, pneumonia

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chronic disorders

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slow-developing diseases

often cannot be cured, only managed

psychological/behavioral/social factors are often implicated as the cause

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steps of population research project

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identify study Q > study approach > design & collect> analyze data > report

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Why do we need to understand the scientific method?

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learn about limitation of empirical methods and generalization

understand impact of other variables i.e. non-response and self-selection

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Characteristics of science

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empirical, from observation or experiment

objective

self-correcting - new evidence may contradict older data

progressive - cumulative

tentative - never absolute, new info may make current knowledge obsolete

parsimonious - use simplest explanation to account for phenomenon

theory - develop theory of how something works

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Frequently used theories in health research

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social learning theory

theory of reasoned action

health belief model

social cognitive theory

stages of change model

diffusion theory

ecological models

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Circumstances leading to research hypothesis

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effort to make sense of a paradoxical incident

use of analogical thinking

resolution of conflicting results

effort to improve on older ideas

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plausibility

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is the initial idea worthy of actual testing?

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Working hypotheses must satisfy 3 Criteria

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correspondence with reality

coherence and parsimony

falsifiability

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theories and hypotheses are made up of

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constructs and variables

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relationships between more than one construct

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theories

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relationships between more than one variable

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hypotheses

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theoretical definition

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more abstract or more general terms

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operational definition

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identify variables on the basis of empirical conditions used to measure or to manipulate the variable

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Ethics

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Researcher should always ask "Should I conduct this research?"

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Research ethics

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the values by which the conduct of researchers, as well as the morality of the various strategies they use, are evaluated

accountable to federal, state & institutional standards

required to receive ethics training periodically

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5 Principles of Ethics

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1. Respect for Autonomy

2. Beneficence & non-maleficence

3. justice

4. trust

5. fidelity & scientific integrity

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research autonomy

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participant's right and ability to choose whether or not to take part in the study

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When is informed consent not feasible?

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-archival studies

-when risk free and consenting would be counterproductive

-some extreme instances when participant can not sign informed consent

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active consent

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parent & child both have to return the signed consent/assent forms

even if parent says yes, child can still say no

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implied consent

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if the parent doesn't say no, we assume they gave consent

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types of research that require active consent

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questions about sex, family life, morality, and religion

-student's personal beliefs or practices

- student's parents' or guardians' beliefs or practices

questions about activities that are sensitive and illegal for minors

-buying cig., drinking alcohol, drug use etc.

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Waiver of Written informed consent

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no more than minimal risk or harm

if obtaining written consent would pose more of a risk of loss of confidentiality than not obtaining written consent

verbal consent usually approved for telephone surveys

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Beneficence

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benefits must outweigh risk to the participant and/or others in your study

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non-maleficence

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risk-benefit analysis performed by an IRB

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IRB

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review all research involving human subjects conducted w/i institution

members cannot vote on their own research studies

disapprove, modify, or approve studies based on consideration of human subjects protection

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reserach justice

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burdens and benefits of the study must be distributed fairly

not easy in biomedical and behavioral intervention research with control groups

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belmont report

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1978

national commission tasked with formulating guidelines to protect rights of participants

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trust

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confidentiality - federal certificate of confidentiality

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fidelity and scientific integrity

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high-quality research that advances knowledge is deemed ethical

avoid ambiguously or mis-reporting results

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systematic observation methods

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scientific research requires systematic observation methods

observation - viewing an occurrence for a scientific purpose, not a self-administered survey

systematic - observation follows a particular plan, not casual interviewing or observing

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observational study

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research that is based on direct observation of participants, without any attempt at intervention or manipulation of the behavior that is being observed

-framingham heart study

-women's interagency HIV study

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dimensions of observational research

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methods: qualitative v quantitative

setting: naturalistic v experimental

participant reaction: reactive v non-reactive

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qualitative v quantitative

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qualitative - narrative form

-describes processes, generates hypotheses, formulates theories

-inductive

quantitative - numerical/graphic form

-test theories, estimate magnitude or strength of relationships b/w variables

test causality

-deductive

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methodological triangulation

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zeroing in on a pattern of behaviors by using multiple, but imperfect, methods

-mixed-method studies: utilize both quantitative (surveys) and qualitative data (observation and in-depth interviews)

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CED-D

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most common screening test for depression, measures depressive feelings and behaviors during the past week

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Advantages of Open-Ended Q

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unrestricted responses

exploratory approach

makes subjects more comfortable

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disadvantages of Open-ended Q

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time-consuming

responses may be off the mark from intent of question and cannot be used

difficult to assess reliability or consistency of responses

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Advantages of closed-ended questions

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efficient to administer to large groups of subjects

data quickly summarized

measures reliable and validated

disadvantage: limit breadth and depth of subjects' responses

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Four types of numerical measurement

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nominal - classification of variable into diff. categories with no order, number is arbitrary

ordinal - categories have order based on characteristics

interval - a measure of successive numbers marking off equal units w/o abs. zero

ratio - measures successive numbers that mark off equal units & have absolute zero

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Rating errors

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central tendency bias - when respondents hesitate to give extreme ratings

acquiescent response set - when respondent tend to go along with any statement

ceiling effect - responses clustered at higher end of scale

floor effect - responses at lower end

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problems with self-report

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recall bias - subjects have unreliable methods for reporting retrospectively

social-desirability bias- subjects may exaggerate good mood and deny negative traits

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Test-retest reliability

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whether an instrument yields same result from one measurement to another

represented by correlation coefficient of -1.0 to +1.0, closer to +1 it is more stable/reliable

concerns temporal stability

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internal consistency

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whether various items or questions in a test are all measuring the same construct

-determines the degree of relatedness of individual items in a scale

-measured by spearman-brown prophecy formula and cronbach's alpa

-range is 0 to 1

reliability of >.8 is acceptable

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statistical conclusion validity

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accuracy of drawing certain statistical conclusions

-concerns size of the effect or effect size's statistical significance

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external validity

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extent that a causal relationship holds across variations in persons, settings, treatments, and outcomes (generalizability)

concerns whether relationships b/w X and Y can be replicated across a wide range of groups and situations

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survey structure

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sec 1: demographics - data used to describe your sample

2 & 3: IV and DV, 1 section per topic

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response formats

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dichotomous or multi-chotomous

multiple responses

ranking

likert scales w/ equally spaced intervals

semantic differential - two opposing concepts

idiographic - using symbols/pics

graphical rating - mark a point on continuous scale

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response data

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quantitative w/ closed-ended questions

qualitative w/ open-ended questions