Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
72 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Free Will VS Determinism |
Is human behavior freely chosen, determined by 'other forces', or random? Determinism-postulates that behaviors are caused by 'something'; events in the world are lawful; X causes Y, etc. Hard determinism-behaviors are automatic, out of control, no responsibility for actions. Soft determinism-allows for intervening factor of cognition/consciousness-allows us to make choices (basically encompasses the idea of choice & physical determinism-mediating ground between free will & determinism) |
|
|
Physical determinism |
Biological, environmental, sociocultural causes of behavior-are directly measurable
|
|
|
Psychical determinism |
Mental events determine behavior-conscious or unconscious-even these 'mental events' are presumably based on something physical (brain activity) |
|
|
Interdeterminism |
a form of determinism-human behavior is determined but we can never know the causes w/ certainty-the act of observing a phenomenon changes the phenomenon-the Observer effect-discovered in physics-also related to the uncertainty principle |
|
|
Nondeterminism |
anti-determinism (belief in free-will)-behavior is self-generated-not caused by the physical or psychical-non-scientific approach |
|
|
Nature vs Nurture (Nativism vs Empiricism) |
Are we born the way we are (nature/nativism) or do experiences determine who we become (nurture/empiricism) |
|
|
Mechanism vs Vitalism |
Mechanism-everything (behavior, life, physical systems) is explainable in mechanistic & material terms-governed by laws of physics & chemistry Vitalism-life cannot be fully understood in terms of physical mechanisms & matter-there is a (metaphysical) 'life force' possessed by living objects |
|
|
Mind-body problem |
Is there such a thing as 'mind'? are mind and body separate or of the same stuff? do they influence each other and how? |
|
|
Positions on Mind-Body problem |
Monism-(extreme?) positions-only mind OR body are used to explain the world. Materialists-everything is material-matter is the only reality; matter used to explain all aspects of the world. Idealists-everything explained in terms of consciousness/mental events; typically consciousness/mental life is considered to be metaphysical |
|
|
Positions on Mind-Body |
Dualism-both mind AND body exists Substance dualism-both mind & body exist, but each is of a fundamentally different kind of 'stuff', one is physical, the other non-physical. Property dualism-both mind & body exist, but are two different properties/aspects of the same stuff |
|
|
Substance Dualism views |
Classical view-mind controls body, but body has little to no ability to impact mind Epiphenomenalism-body influences mind, but mind cannot influence behavior ('mind' is a by-product of body states) Interactionism-mind and body are seperate but each influences the other-Descartes |
|
|
Nature of Human Experience and Knowledge |
Determinants of human experience and behavior-learning, memory, knowledge, perception, abnormal behavior, emotion, consciousness, etc |
|
|
Psychology's Paradox |
The study of psychology is both: one of the oldest areas of inquiry (fundamental questions about human nature pondered in Western civ. at least since Plat & Aristotle) and one of the newest scientific disciples (scientific investigation of psyc phenomenon began about 200 years ago) |
|
|
Property Dualistic Views |
Emergentiam-body states lead to mental states; w/ sufficiently complex physical systems, mental states emerge (in some forms, mental states can then cause an influence on body/brain states and thus behavior Double Aspectism-mind and body are two sides of the same coin-Spinoza (no meaningful separation can be made-both are simultaneous aspects of the same experience) |
|
|
Psychology vs Philosophy |
Methodology. Philosophy: speculation, intuition, and generalization. Modern Scientific approach: controlled observations, manipulation of variables, and experimentation. Questions have stayed the same-tools, techniques, and methods have changed |
|
|
Features making psychology a science |
We apply the scientific methods developed in natural sciences (specialized tools for measurement, control & manipulation of variables, experimentation, careful observation & replication, objectivity and precision are always sought out). Scientific psychology represents a union between philosophy (topic) and the natural sciences (methodology) |
|
|
Historiography |
"The principles, methods, and philosophical issues of historical research"-the data of history; problems with historical date; the challenge of (re)constructing history |
|
|
Data of History |
Historical data is typically fragmented-personal documents, letters and diaries, of important individuals; descriptions of observers & participants of what was happening; photographs; laboratory equipment; interviews & official publications |
|
|
Problems with reconstructing history |
Historical data cannot be replicated; events might not have been recorded at all; records of events might not be accurate; Lost Data-purposeful (John Watson systematically burned all his personal documents before his death), accidental (Wundt's lab in Leipzig was fire bombed by the British during WWII); suppressed data-individuals & biographers often purposefully hide or alter the presentation of data (present a more favorable view; protect reputations) John B Watson systematically destroyed his personal records before death |
|
|
Problems w/ reconstructing history cont |
Data distorted in translation-Many of psychology's historical documents are not in english-roots are in Europe (German), distortions can be purposefully or carelessly introduced in translation-these distortions can drastically alter our interpretation of a given event, idea, or individual. Biased of Self-Serving Data-the original data of history has been skewed (consciously or unconsciously biased)-schemas can lead to (unconsciously) biased memory, in some causes individuals purposefully present a picture that is not entirely accurate (B.F. Skinners autobiography) |
|
|
How historians can overcome problems |
Seek out corroborating evidence; attempt objective analysis of the data-seek out criticsm and differing perspectives |
|
|
Zeitgeist |
"The intellectual and cultural climate or spirit of the times" |
|
|
Zeitgeist in early 20th century |
???? |
|
|
Personalistic View |
"Progress and change...are attributable to the ideas of unique individuals" |
|
|
Naturalistic view |
"Progress and change...are attributable to the Zeitgeist, which makes a culture receptive to some ideas but not to others" |
|
|
Conceptions of history (two views of historical development-personalistic vs naturalistic) |
Individuals certainly can dramatically alter the course of history, however, many important ideas and concepts have been proposed, and then ignored because the culture (intellectual & social) was not ready. Support for naturalistic-documented cases of idea suppression, independent, simultaneous proposals of new ideas Psyc did not development in a vacuum it developed in a given context-cultural, intellectual & historical. Contextual forces in early american Psych-economic focus, War, Prejudice & discrimination |
|
|
School of Thought |
A group of psychologists who share an ideology or geographical location; a theoretical or ideological standpoint; a system or method of investigation for a particular type of question. Typically: rises up as a reaction against the currently accepted viewpoint: the 'new' corrects the 'old'; the new idea becomes accepted; another new concept rises up to replace the one before it |
|
|
Pre-paradigmatic |
(Kuhn (1970) defines scientific fields as pre-paradigmatic/paradigmatic) An early stage of development when the field is fractured into different groups. In essence we are in a pre-paradigmatic stage (or maybe post-paradigmatic) |
|
|
Paradigmatic |
A more 'mature' stage of development-a field is unified, working on the same problems with the same framework. A paradigm is "an accepted way of thinking within a field" |
|
|
Mechanism |
"The doctrine that natural processes are mechanically determined and capable of explanation by the laws of physics and chemistry" Galileo & Newton-Fathers of mechanism. Newton mechanism proposed that all physical effects are lawfully determined, can be measured and predicted. Phenomena in the world can be measured, things can be explained and predicted, determinism, reductionism |
|
|
Impact of the clock on the Zeitgeist |
Clocks allowed for precise measurement (hallmark of science); clock=perfect embodiment/metaphor of mechanism & a model for the universe (people could open up, study, understand and see the laws of mechanism-physics-in operation); clocks were suddenly everywhere, made mechanism available to the masses |
|
|
Determinism (in relation to mechanism) |
fundamental part of the mechanistic framework-matter acts in lawful & predictable ways; once created, the universe (and everything in it) would continue to function according to deterministic laws; this idea was also furthured by the clock |
|
|
Prevalent ideas of 17th century: Determinism |
Belief that "acts (and events) are determined by past events"; one thing/event causes or determines another; fundamental part of the mechanistic framework-matter acts in lawful & predictable ways; once created, the universe (and everything in it) would continue to function according to deterministic laws; this idea was also furthured by the clock |
|
|
Prevalent ideas of 17th century: Reductionism |
Idea that "explains phenomena on one level in terms of phenomena on another level"; complex phenomena (the working of a clock) could be explained by understanding similar phenomena (parts of a clocks,relationships); we can understand the physical universe by breaking it down to its component parts; became hallmark of all sciences |
|
|
Prevalent ideas of 17th century: Automata |
Sophisticated mechanical contraptions designed to imitate human & animal behavior; became the fascination of the populace; the defecating duck (1730s); were designed w/parts that duplicated those found in real organisms; "blurred the line between man and machine" |
|
|
Humans as machines |
Automata led to the idea that animals, even humans, could be viewed as machines; philosophers and scientists adopted this view; furthered the ideas that: -humans can be explained in terms of machines-experimental & quantitative methods can be applied to studies of human nature |
|
|
Charles Babbage (1791-1871) |
Formulated the principles now underlying modern computing; key contributions: developed the first mechanical device that imitated human mental activity (beyond simple addition/subtraction); the Difference Engine: could calculate mathematical functions, played games, had a memory-could 'store' intermediate results used for calculations |
|
|
Difference engine |
A physical force resulted in an activity formerly accomplished only by mental effect-maybe the brain (human nature) really is mechanical. |
|
|
Analytic Engine |
Programmed with punch cards, separate memory and info processing capacities, printed readout-not realized in Babbage's day |
|
|
How people sought answers to questions pre 1600s versus 1600s on |
Pre 1600s: works of ancient scholars (e.g. Aristotle), the bible, and biblical interpretations from early theologians (Aquinas & Augustine). 17t cent shift-the empirical approach. Church began to lose its control of intellectual life because: new scientific discovers (Copernacus' heliocentric view)contested church dogma; the protestant reformation (1517) weakened the church grip, fostered intellectualism & inquiry; the printing press developed in mid 1400s lead to greater literacy & access to knowledge |
|
|
Empiricism |
The idea that knowledge should be gained through observation and experience. |
|
|
the empirical approach |
the view that all knowledge should be gained through observation & experience-symbolized by individuals like Descartes & Francis Bacon. |
|
|
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) key contributions: |
View on the mind-body relationship-Descartes took a dualistic view: specifically that mind and body are separate and distinct (substance Dualism) Interactionism-the mind could influence the body and the body could influence the mind; revolutionary ideas-the mind and body are distinct, but can interact within the human body |
|
|
Impact of Descartes |
If the body can influence the mind maybe we should start considering how mental life is impacted by body experiences; changed the views of scientists/philosophers: greater important placed on the material body, things previously attributed to the mind were attributed to the body, the mind/soul was viewed as having a single function (thought), began changing peoples thinking from soul-body problem to mental-physical problem |
|
|
Impact of Descartes cont. |
Changed the playing field regarding thinking about M-B problem; did two things: previous 'mind actions; were now studied as physical mechanistic body systems; eventually, Philosophers and scientists begin thinking about mental processes, which can be potentially observed and studied, rather than thinking in terms of un-measurable 'soul'. Body is a machine & works determinately. |
|
|
Importance for psych (M-B problem) |
People began thinking about: the ability for the brain to control behaviors, the ability for the environment to impact mental life, the potentially mechanistic relationship between mental life, body, behavior, and the environment |
|
|
Descartes' view of nature of the body |
The body is a machine that can be studied mechanistically. A physical force (animal spirits) produces mental quality (sensation) |
|
|
The Reflex Action Theory |
Descartes observed that reflexive actions occur w/o conscious will (involuntarily); an external stimulus can cause an automatic response-this is very mechanistic: explanation of human behavior, the theory also implies that humans are machines=deterministic/reducable |
|
|
Why Reflex action theory was important |
These behaviors do not require cognitive processes; behaviors can be determined by something other than 'free will'; reflexes are mechanical and predictable-led to a growing belief that human behavior in general may be predictable; predecessor to Behaviorism and Stimulus-Response (S-R) psychology |
|
|
Descartes views of innate and derived ideas (Doctrine of Ideas) |
Derived ideas-an idea that arises from the application of an external stimulus (starts w/sensation-the bell)-these ideas are the product of senses; innate ideas-ideas not produced by external stimuli, ideas that come directly out of the mind: they are independent of sensory experience but may occur in the presence of a sensory experience. Ex: the ideas of 'god', the self, infinity, perfection, principles of geometry. Importance: Descartes made strong arguments about the validity of examining purely subjective experience-leads to acceptance of 'introspection' |
|
|
Impact of doctrine of ideas/importance for psyc |
Begins the classification of mental processes; statement that mental states are determined by environmental stimulation (of the body); innate ideas=nativistic theory about cognition (becomes a point of contention between different philosophical views); introspection becomes an accepted method of inquiry-is required for innate ideas |
|
|
Positivism |
Philosophical view that only objective, observable facts should be taken as a basis for knowledge-idea inherent in the work of Francis Bacon; Advocated by Auguste Comte (1798-1857); only facts determined using the scientific method and which are not debatable (purely objective) are worth while (anti-metaphysical). Positivism became a part of the Zeitgeist of the late 1800s-this would push psych towards more objective questions & more objective data; positivism also led to the view in science that knowledge (about the physical world) derived from metaphysics & theology was 'nonsense'; only knowledge based on objective scientific methods was valid |
|
|
Materialism |
The view that the physical world can be completely understood w/ respects to the existence & nature of matter; findings in physics and chemistry were supporting this view; also an anti-metaphysical stance/anti-vitalism; proposed that even human consciousness could be explained in this way |
|
|
Empiricism (definition on separate card) |
Empiricist philosophers: John Locke (1690), George Berkeley (1709/1710), David Hume (1748), David Hartley (1749), James Mill (1829), John Stuart Mill (1843) |
|
|
Locke's idea on how knowledge is acquired |
Rejected existence of innate ideas-believed humans were born w/o any knowledge (tabula rasa-the 'blank slate' proposed by aristotle); ideas that seem innate are actually due to habit and learning; the mind acquires all knowledge via experience-empiricism |
|
|
Locke Sensations & Reflections |
Sensations-simple sensory experiences & impressions that result from current sensory input. Reflections-process of reasoning or thinking & ideas that result from the process of reflection; reflection is about, and depends on, the simple sensory ideas, reflection is the mind's ability to think about itself-builds up new ideas/knowledge |
|
|
Locke's Fountains of Knowledge |
From the processes of sensation (1) and reflection (2) knowledge was derived. Sensation was passive, reflection was active. Knowledge (beyond basic sensations) was gained primarily via the mental faculties of reflection-Locke considered the ability to engage in reflective processes to be innate |
|
|
Locke's Primary & Secondary qualities |
Refer to properties of objects: objectively experienced by an individual-perceptual quality=physical quality=objective-primary qualities (shape, size, solidity, quantity)-exist in an object regardless of whether a human is around to perceive them; subjectively experienced by the individual-perceptual quality =not physical world=subjective-secondary qualities (color, smell, warmth, etc.)-exists only in the mind of the observer-only exist perceptually; related to Paradox of Basins |
|
|
Other British Empiricist on Primary & Secondary qualities |
George Berkeley (1685-1753)-subjective perception is the only reality; remove perception and the world disappears; argued that there are NO primary qualities-all we have are subjective mental qualities-mentalism, however, the 'world' (of ideas) continues to exist due to God as 'constant perceiver'; David Hume (1711-1776)-agreed w/ Berkeley that humans cannot know the physical world except via perception-disagree w/ Berkeley about God as constant perceiver; said that 'there must be a physical world, but we simply have no way to know for sure' |
|
|
Theory of Association (Locke) |
Another step towards thinking about the mind as a machine. Association=pairing together simpler ideas into more complex ideas; complex ideas can then be reduced into simple ideas. Principles, laws, and rules were proposed that attempted to explain why/how associations were formed=determinism. |
|
|
George Berkeley on Association |
Knowledge of objects was constructed by associating simple ideas; used the idea of association to explicitly explain real cognitive phenomena. ex. depth perception-results from association of sensory cues w/ one another & w/motor activity. |
|
|
David Hume on Association |
Believed all mental life was based on associating simple sensory inputs-associationism. Proposed the imagination: cognitive tool used to actively create new complex ideas. Three laws of Association: contiguity-contiguous ideas/events are more easily associated, resemblance-similar ideas more easily associated, cause & effect-events occurring together, that can be seen in light of cause and effect, will be associated |
|
|
David Hartley (1705-1757) on Association |
Also proposed that contiguous events will be associated. Added that repetition of sensations & ideas is critical for association to occur; ideas become more complex w/ experience; rejected 'reflection': proposed all mental contents were passively formed automatically via association. Mechanistic theory of physiological processes-nerves were solid, and actions/perceptions were transmitted via vibrations |
|
|
James Mill (1773-1836) |
Took a 'strong' mechanistic view of the mind-literally believed the mind was a machine. Stated goal: "to demonstrate that the mind was nothing more than a machine". Believed the mind was totally passive-automatically responding to external stimulus (mental physics view of the mind; no free will). To understand the mind, we must understand its elemental components. Mental mechanics: what determined strength of association? Contiguity, frequency (repetition), vividness-more vivid=stronger association (sensations more vivid than ideas, associations w/pleasure/pain=greater vividness, recency-recent ideas more vivid than distant ideas) |
|
|
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) |
Argued against some aspects of his father's view of the mind: complex ideas were not always simple aggregates of simple ideas, ideas were sometimes combined in ways that gave rise to new qualities-still in automatic process, took a mental chemistry approach to thinking about the mind). Proposed a form of passive/automatic mental chemistry. Also argued that we could scientifically study the mind |
|
|
Friedrich Bessel (1784-1846) |
Astronomer who proposed the Personal Equation-the idea that each human observer has their own way of making observations. Individual differences in perception/action. Found disagreements between measurements, of the same event, made by different astronomers. Provided scientific evidence that human perception is subjective. His findings forced scientist to think about the nature of human perception-in essence, psychological research begins |
|
|
Johannes Muller (1801-1858) |
German physiologist, helped to develop physiology into an experimentally focused field (1830s). Proposed the idea of specific nerve energies-stimulation of a sense organ always leads to a specific sensation because: each nerve has it's own specific type of 'energy'. Lead to two lines of research: looking for & studying sensory receptor mechanisms, and localizing functions within the nervous system |
|
|
Three Methods used for mapping brain function |
Electrical Stimulation-apply weak electrical currents to nerves & brain areas; see what happens. Extirpation-(from extirpate-to remove completely)-surgically removing or destroying parts of the brain & looking for changes in behavior. The clinical method-involved observing behavioral/cognitive deficits in living patients w/ brain damage, then posthumously examining the brain for damage. |
|
|
Paul Bruca (1824-1880) |
Studied a patient who could not produce intelligible speech using the clinical method, found that a specific area of the left frontal cortex was damaged-this area later became known as Broca's area. His research indicated that human mental abilities were localized to specific areas |
|
|
Franz Josef Gall (1758-1828) |
Studied the brain from the inside & outside. Interested in the relationship between brain size, shape & mental abilities. Founded cranioscopy-later known as phrenology. Proposed that the shape of a person's skull was related to: intellectual ability, emotional & personality characteristics. Strong proponent of 'modular' brain. |
|
|
Phrenology |
Proposed that the shape of a person's skull was related to: intellectual ability, emotional & personality characteristics. Strong proponent of 'modular' brain. Positive outcomes of Phrenology: furthered the idea that it was possible to localize specific brain functions, provided hope for a more objective, materialistic, & empirical approach to studying mental function. |
|
|
Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934) |
Developed the Neuron Doctrine (late 1800s) stated that the nervous system is composed of individual cells called neurons-reductionism. Was the 1st to make many groundbreaking discoveries about the nervous system. |
