History Of West Civilization: Final

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Renaissance

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Term that has come to define any period of intense creativity. In this case it refers specifically to a cultural movement based on imitating classical literature.

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Humanism

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1. A western cultural movement which emphasized the superiority of Greek & Roman literature especially its values of personal and public morality.
2. Started in Italy where academics were interested in study of logic and rhetoric – a throwback to the days of the Romans and Greeks.

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Francesco Petrarch

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1. Coined the term the Babylonian Captivity and the expression the Dark Ages.
2. Believed the Church was out of touch with people – remained a Christian but questioned Church practices – opens the door for others later to reject.
3. Believed his age was separated from the enlightenment of the Greeks and Romans by the “Dark Ages” – once the darkness was broken we could return to a time of reason.

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Civic Humanism

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1. An ideology, popular with political leaders of Florence, that emphasized Rome’s classical republican virtues of duty and public service.
2. Petrarch’s philosophy became popular with the leaders of political life in Florence and a generation of young intellectuals – believed it was holier to be active in public affairs than to lead a life of solitude in a monastery.
3. Does Humanism change attitudes towards women? Not really – a few prominent women but changed life for few.

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Donation of Constantine

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The Donation of Constantine is a forged Roman imperial decree by which the emperor Constantine I supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the Pope. Lorenzo Valla proved the document allegedly giving Rome to the pope by Constantine was a forgery.

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Niccolo Machiavelli

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1. Machiavelli wrote an important piece entitled The Prince which emphasized a successful leader had to anticipate and adapt to change.

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linear perspective

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1. Artists develop a way to represent three dimensional objects on a two dimensional plane.
2. Two observations.
a. as parallel lines recede into the distance, the seem to converge, and;
b. a geometric relationship regulates the relative sizes of objects at various distances from the viewer.

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Leonardo DaVinci

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1. DaVinci is famous for plans for bridges, fortresses, submarines and airships – famous for the Last Supper.

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Michaelangelo

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1. Michaelangelo considered to be the pinnacle of Renaissance art. Famous for the Sistine Chapel and the statute of David.

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Johann Gutenberg

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1. How were books printed before the 15th century?
2. Up to the 15th century all books had to be meticulously copies by hand.
3. In the 1450’s Johann Gutenberg invented the movable press. How did this differ with what came before? Hometown paper.
4. Most printed book the Bible – from 1452 – 53 180 to 200 Gutenberg Bibles were printed.
A link between the printshop and the humanists many of whom took up “residence” and communicated with one another – early version of Starbucks.

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Desiderus Erasmus

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1. Erasmus often called the “Prince of Humanists”
2. Erasmus beliefs outlined in what he called his “Philosophy of Christ”
a. Man did not need ceremonies or rituals.
b. Used analogy of priest in a shipwreck who promised God everything if he would save him when his best course of action would been to simply swim!
3. Believed that Humanistic and Christian wisdom together could wipe out war, violence and superstition.

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Sir Thomas More

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1. Sir Thomas More, Chancellor of England under Henry VIII, prominent jurist and author of Utopia which actually means nowhere.
a. Utopia is an island somewhere in the middle of the vast new lands and waters that have been discovered.
b. On Utopia there is no private property and everything is shared equally and as a result there is harmony, tolerance and little fighting. (First part sounds a lot like native American traditions)

2. Sir Thomas was a devout Catholic who lost his head in support of the pope when he defied the wishes of Henry VIII. His humanistic beliefs had little impact on his own actions as Chancellor when he actually persecuted Protestants and acted in a way contrary to what he advocated in Utopia.

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Martin Luther

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1. Luther held theological views contrary to church doctrine but met with little challenge until he took on the Sale of Indulgences in 1517.

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95 Theses

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1. Luther first challenged the church on the issue but received no response so he then issued his “Ninety-five theses” in 1517.

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Justification by Faith

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a. Luther developed a philosophy that one is saved by what he called “Justification by Faith” or salvation is a free gift from God independent of and penitential or charitable acts.
b. In Luther’s church the acts of piety were unnecessary because Christ’s sacrifice had brought justification once and for all. Justification came entirely from God independent of good works. Acts of penance to prepare for death were thus unnecessary.

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Indulgences

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1. Indulgences (a remission of penalties owed for your sins) which was actually a common practice in the Catholic Church of the day – a money making scheme for the Church.
2. According to doctrine of the day a person went through a continuous cycle of sin, confession, contrition, and penance and one must have at least started this cycle before death. People lived in fear they would die before they confessed their most recent sin and the Indulgences were theoretically a way to buy your way out.

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John Calvin

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1. Came to lead many reformers in the 1530’s. Was trained as a lawyer before becoming a reformationist.
2. In his book Institutes of the Christian Religion Calvin laid out the idea that God has absolute power and mankind is completely depraved.
3. Like Luther he viewed salvation as a mysterious gift from God but he disagreed on transubstantiation and believed one could not be saved if one did not lead a righteous life.
4. He further believed that public officials had a right and duty to “lead and correct” both the faithful and the sinners.

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Predestination

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1. Calvin developed a concept of predestination and one could see signs of how one would wind up in the afterlife based upon how well one did financially and prestige wise within the community.

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transubstantiation

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a. Luther accepted the idea of transubstantiation, or the act of changing wine and bread to the actual blood and body or Christ, but thought priests had nothing to do with the transformation.

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sola scriptura

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a. In a publication entitled the “Babylonian Captivity of the Church” Luther argued that all church authority had to be based upon biblical teachings –was the principle of sola scriptura.

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Anabaptists

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A. Radical Reform of the Anabaptists

1. Were reformers who believed the reforms of Luther and Calvin did not go nearly far enough.
2. Believed people should only be baptized when they were adults and after they confessed their sins. Many believed true believers should live apart from society.
3. Contemporary remnants of this group are Mennonites and Hutterites.

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Elizabeth I

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Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called "The Virgin Queen", "Gloriana" or "Good Queen Bess", Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born into the royal succession, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed two and a half years after her birth, with Anne's marriage to Henry VIII being annulled, and Elizabeth hence declared illegitimate. On his death in 1553, her half-brother, Edward VI, bequeathed the crown to Lady Jane Grey, cutting his two half-sisters, Elizabeth and the Roman Catholic Mary, out of the succession in spite of statute law to the contrary. His will was set aside, Mary became queen, and Lady Jane Grey was executed. In 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister, during whose reign she had been imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.
Elizabeth set out to rule by good counsel,[1] and she depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, Baron Burghley. One of her first moves as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement later evolved into today's Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir so as to continue the Tudor line. She never did, however, despite numerous courtships. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity, and a cult grew up around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been.[2] One of her mottoes was "video et taceo" ("I see, and say nothing").[3] In religion she was relatively tolerant, avoiding systematic persecution. After 1570, when the pope declared her illegitimate and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life. All plots were defeated, however, with the help of her ministers' secret service. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, moving between the major powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. In the mid-1580s, war with Spain could no longer be avoided, and when Spain finally decided to attempt to conquer England in 1588, the failure of the Spanish Armada associated her with one of the greatest military victories in English history.
Elizabeth's reign is known as the Elizabethan era, famous above all for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake. Some historians are more reserved in their assessment. They depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,[4] who enjoyed more than her share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer and a dogged survivor, in an age when government was ramshackle and limited and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. Such was the case with Elizabeth's rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, whom she imprisoned in 1568 and eventually had executed in 1587. After the short reigns of Elizabeth's half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity.[2]

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Mary Queen of Scots

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Mary, Queen of Scots (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), also known as Mary Stuart[3] or Mary I of Scotland, was queen regnant of Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567 and queen consort of France from 10 July 1559 to 5 December 1560.
Mary, the only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland, was 6 days old when her father died and she acceded to the throne. She spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents, and in 1558, she married the Dauphin of France, Francis. He ascended the French throne as King Francis II in 1559, and Mary briefly became queen consort of France, until his death on 5 December 1560. Widowed, Mary returned to Scotland, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561. Four years later, she married her first cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, but their union was unhappy. In February 1567, his residence was destroyed by an explosion, and Darnley was found murdered in the garden.
James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnley's death, but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567, and the following month he married Mary. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle. On 24 July 1567, she was forced to abdicate in favour of James, her one-year-old son by Darnley. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, Queen Elizabeth I of England. Mary had previously claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics, including participants in a rebellion known as the Rising of the North. Perceiving her as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in a number of castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen and a half years in custody, Mary was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth, and was subsequently executed.

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John Knox

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John Knox (c. 1514 – 24 November 1572) was a Scottish clergyman and a leader of the Protestant Reformation who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian denomination in Scotland. He is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews and worked as a notary-priest. Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church. He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546 and the intervention of the regent of Scotland Mary of Guise. He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549.
While in exile, Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England, where he rose in the ranks to serve King Edward VI of England as a royal chaplain. He exerted a reforming influence on the text of the Book of Common Prayer. In England he met and married his first wife Margery Bowes. When Mary Tudor ascended the throne and re-established Roman Catholicism, Knox was forced to resign his position and leave the country. Knox moved to Geneva and then to Frankfurt. In Geneva he met John Calvin, from whom he gained experience and knowledge of Reformed theology and Presbyterian polity. He created a new order of service, which was eventually adopted by the reformed church in Scotland. He left Geneva to head the English refugee church in Frankfurt but he was forced to leave over differences concerning the liturgy, thus ending his association with the Church of England.
On his return to Scotland he led the Protestant Reformation in Scotland, in partnership with the Scottish Protestant nobility. The movement may be seen as a revolution, since it led to the ousting of Mary of Guise, who governed the country in the name of her young daughter Mary, Queen of Scots. Knox helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created reformed church, the Kirk. He continued to serve as the religious leader of the Protestants throughout Mary's reign. In several interviews with the Queen, Knox admonished her for supporting Catholic practices. When she was imprisoned for her alleged role in the murder of her husband Lord Darnley, and King James VI enthroned in her stead, he openly called for her execution. He continued to preach until his final days.

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Puritans

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The Puritans were a significant group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, including, but not limited to, English Calvinists. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some Marian exiles from the clergy shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England. The designation "Puritan" is often incorrectly used, based on the assumption that hedonism and puritanism are antonyms.[1] Historically, the word was used pejoratively to characterise the Protestant group as extremists, similar to the Cathars of France and, according to Thomas Fuller in his Church History, dated back to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and "precisian" with the sense of the modern "stickler".[2]

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Sir Francis Drake

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a. Served with Hawkins when attacked by the Spanish.
b. In 1572 he captures a large Spanish shipment of gold from the New World.
c. Elizabeth glad to have him back but she had to act as though she were unhappy with him for his theft.

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Oliver Cromwell

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1. Central to the battle was the performance of Roundhead cavalry under the command of Oliver Cromwell.
2. Marston Moor may have been end of the Royalist cause but Parliament allowed Royalist forces to escape.
3. Led by Oliver Cromwell Parliamentary forces defeat the King at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645.
A. Cromwell and the army seen as ones responsible for King’s execution.
A. Second Parliament asks Cromwell to become an hereditary Protector in May of 1657.

1. Cromwell dies on Sept. 3, 1658, his heritage
2. Royalists called him a brave bad man and many supporters saw him as someone who became the figure they were fighting against.

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James I

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1. Son of Mary Queen of Scots raised by Protestants in Scotland.
2. Was highly intelligent with a retentive memory and a quick though coarse wit.
3. Was a religious man known for the King James version of the Bible translated during his reign.
4. Was highly successful as monarch of Scotland but he did not understand England nearly as well.
5. Loved to spend money, viewed England as a piggy bank and bankrolled a lavish life style for himself and his family.
A. Adopts the theory of the Divine Right of Kings
II. He inherited many problems would have surfaced even had an Elizabeth assumed the throne.

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Charles I

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Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649[a]) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649.
Charles was the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish and Scottish thrones on the death of his elder brother in 1612. An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to a Spanish Habsburg princess culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiations. Two years later he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead.
After his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the divine right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated the antipathy and mistrust of reformed groups such as the Puritans and Calvinists, who thought his views too Catholic. He supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to successfully aid Protestant forces during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments and helped precipitate his own downfall.
From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared. In 1660, the English Interregnum ended when the monarchy was restored to Charles's son, Charles II.

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The Glorious Revolution of 1688

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The Glorious Revolution,[b] also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). William's successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his ascending of the English throne as William III of England jointly with his wife Mary II of England.
King James's policies of religious tolerance after 1685 met with increasing opposition by members of leading political circles, who were troubled by the king's Catholicism and his close ties with France. The crisis facing the king came to a head in 1688, with the birth of the King's son, James Francis Edward Stuart, on 10 June (Julian calendar).[a] This changed the existing line of succession by displacing the heir presumptive, his daughter Mary, a Protestant and the wife of William of Orange, with young James as heir apparent. The establishment of a Roman Catholic dynasty in the kingdoms now seemed likely. Some of the most influential leaders of the Tories united with members of the opposition Whigs and set out to resolve the crisis by inviting William of Orange to England,[1] which the stadtholder, who feared an Anglo-French alliance, had indicated as a condition for a military intervention.
After consolidating political and financial support, William crossed the North Sea and English Channel with a large invasion fleet in November 1688, landing at Torbay. After only two minor clashes between the two opposing armies in England, and anti-Catholic riots in several towns, James's regime collapsed, largely because of a lack of resolve shown by the king. However, this was followed by the protracted Williamite War in Ireland and Dundee's rising in Scotland.[c] In England's geographically-distant American colonies, the revolution led to the collapse of the Dominion of New England and the overthrow of the Province of Maryland's government. Following a defeat of his forces at the Battle of Reading on 9 December, James and his wife fled England; James, however, returned to London for a two-week period that culminated in his final departure for France on 23 December. By threatening to withdraw his troops, William in February 1689 convinced a newly chosen Convention Parliament to make him and his wife joint monarchs.
The Revolution permanently ended any chance of Catholicism becoming re-established in England. For British Catholics its effects were disastrous both socially and politically: Catholics were denied the right to vote and sit in the Westminster Parliament for over a century; they were also denied commissions in the army, and the monarch was forbidden to be Catholic or to marry a Catholic, this latter prohibition remaining in force until the UK's Succession to the Crown Act 2013 removes it once it comes into effect. The Revolution led to limited toleration for Nonconformist Protestants, although it would be some time before they had full political rights. It has been argued, mainly by Whig historians, that James's overthrow began modern English parliamentary democracy: the Bill of Rights of 1689 has become one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain and never since has the monarch held absolute power.
Internationally, the Revolution was related to the War of the Grand Alliance on mainland Europe. It has been seen as the last successful invasion of England.[2] It ended all attempts by England in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century to subdue the Dutch Republic by military force. However, the resulting economic integration and military co-operation between the English and Dutch navies shifted the dominance in world trade from the Dutch Republic to England and later to Great Britain.
The expression "Glorious Revolution" was first used by John Hampden in late 1689,[3] and is an expression that is still used by the British Parliament.[4] The Glorious Revolution is also occasionally termed the Bloodless Revolution, albeit inaccurately. The English Civil War (also known as the Great Rebellion) was still within living memory for most of the major English participants in the events of 1688, and for them, in comparison to that war (or even the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685) the deaths in the conflict of 1688 were mercifully few.

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John Locke

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1. Stated there was a contract between the governors and the governed thus there was no notion of divine right to rule – thus governments could be justly overthrown.
2. Argued that man had “certain inalienable rights, such as religious liberty and equality before the law which the state could not interfere with.”
3. The protection of property was to be the great objective of government.
4. Argued there should be a division of powers between the legislative, Executive and judicial branches of government.
5. His ideas appear in the U.S. constitution.

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The Bill of Rights of 1689

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A. Bill of Rights of 1689 described as greatest constitutional document since the Magna Carta.

1. Parliament could not be suspended without its consent
2. Money could not be levied in anyway that was not granted.
3. Free speech in Parliament was not to be questioned except by Parliament itself.
4. Subjects could petition their monarch.
5. Prohibited cruel and unusual punishment.
6. No Roman Catholic or anyone married to a Catholic could become monarch.
7. Protestants have right to bear arms for their protection.

B. Bill of Rights establishes England as a limited monarch with the power of Parliament as sovereign and sets forth the elementary legal rights of all Englishmen.

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Absolutism

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A. Absolutism describes the extraordinary concentration of power in royal hands achieved mainly by the kings of France.
1. Absolutism did not mean unlimited right to rule without constraint but rather the hereditary monarchy was the divinely ordained form of government.
2. Much of the glue that held it together lay in the symbolism of court life as well as the informal structures of government.

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Mercantilism

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a. Mercantilism stresses the absolute value of bullion or hard currency, the self-sufficiency in manufactured goods, and tight control of trade.

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Louis VIV

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Louis XIV (5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi-Soleil), was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death.[1] His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of monarchs of major countries in European history.[2]
Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661 after the death of his chief minister, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin.[3] An adherent of the theory of the divine right of kings, which advocates the divine origin of monarchical rule, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France and, by compelling many members of the nobility to inhabit his lavish Palace of Versailles, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which had participated in the Fronde rebellion during Louis's minority. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution.
During Louis's reign, France was the leading European power and it fought three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession. There were also two lesser conflicts: the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions. Louis encouraged and benefited from the work of prominent political, military, and cultural figures such as Mazarin, Colbert, the Grand Condé, Turenne and Vauban, as well as Molière, Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, Lully, Marais, Le Brun, Rigaud, Bossuet, Le Vau, Mansart, Charles and Claude Perrault, and Le Nôtre.
Upon his death just days before his seventy-seventh birthday, Louis was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV. All of his intermediate heirs predeceased him: his son Louis, le Grand Dauphin; the Dauphin's eldest son Louis, Duke of Burgundy; and Burgundy's eldest son Louis, Duke of Brittany (the elder brother of Louis XV).

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Dutch East India Company

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a. Dutch also expanded because of institutions they set up – The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602 and was one of the first to have negotiable stocks. 1. By 1600 the Dutch already controlled much of the trade within Europe and had the ships to expand.

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Peter the Great

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1. Romanov’s became the ruling family in 1613 and under Peter the Great (1682-1725) they expanded the Russian Empire.
2. Well-traveled and educated, Peter wanted to westernize Russia.
3. Elevated new families to the aristocracy and strongly encouraged both western style of dress and better education.
4. Built the totally new western style city of St. Petersburg on the shores of the Baltic.
5. Peter built a totally new navy and modern army and waged war for virtually all of his reign.

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Augusburg Confession

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1. Luther’s closest advisor, Philipp Melanchthon, prepared the Augusburg Confession which he saw as a basis of compromise with the Catholics but which really became the definitive statement of Lutheranism.

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Charles V

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Charles V (German: Karl V.; Spanish: Carlos I; Croatian: Karlo V; Dutch: Karel V; Italian: Carlo V; Czech: Karel V.; French: Charles Quint; 24 February 1500 – 21 September 1558) was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II as King of Spain in 1556.
Charles was the eldest son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna the Mad. His grandmother was Isabella I of Castile. As the heir of three of Europe's leading dynasties—the House of Habsburg of the Habsburg Monarchy; the House of Valois-Burgundy of the Burgundian Netherlands; and the House of Trastámara of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon—he ruled over extensive domains in Central, Western, and Southern Europe; and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As Charles was the first king to rule Castile, León, and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, he became the first King of Spain.[3] In 1519, Charles became Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria. From that point forward, his empire spanned nearly four million square kilometers across Europe, the Far East, and the Americas.[4]
Much of Charles' reign was devoted to the Italian Wars against France which, although enormously expensive, were militarily successful. Charles' forces re-captured both Milan and Franche-Comté from France after the decisive Habsburg victory at the Battle of Pavia in 1525,[5] which pushed Francis I of France to form the Franco-Ottoman alliance. Charles' rival Suleiman the Magnificent conquered the central part of the Hungarian Kingdom in 1526 after defeating the Christians at the Battle of Mohács. However, the Ottoman advance was halted after they failed to capture Vienna in 1529.
Aside from his military endeavors, Charles is best known for his role in opposing the Protestant Reformation.[6] Several German princes abandoned the Catholic Church and formed the Schmalkaldic League in order to challenge Charles' authority with military force. Unwilling to allow the wars of religion to come to his other domains, Charles pushed for the convocation of the Council of Trent, which began the Counter-Reformation. The Society of Jesus was established by St. Ignatius of Loyola during Charles' reign in order to peacefully and intellectually combat Protestantism, and continental Spain was spared from religious conflict largely by Charles' nonviolent measures.[7]
In the New World, Spain conquered Mexico and Peru, and extended its control across much of South and Central America. Charles oversaw the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Charles provided five ships to Ferdinand Magellan whose voyage — the first circumnavigation of the Earth — laid the foundation for the Pacific oceanic empire of Spain and began Spanish colonization of the Philippines.
Though always at war, Charles was a lover of peace. "Not greedy of territory," wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1536, "but most greedy of peace and quiet."[8] The Tercios were the main troops in all Charles' reign. Charles retired in 1556. The Habsburg Monarchy passed to Charles' younger brother Ferdinand, whereas the Spanish Empire was inherited by his son Philip II. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century.

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Counter-Reformation

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B. Catholic Reform better known as a Counter-Reformation defines Catholic beliefs.

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Jesuits

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The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu, S.J., SJ or SI) is a Christian male religious congregation of the Roman Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents. Jesuits work in education (founding schools, colleges, universities and seminaries), intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes and promote social justice and ecumenical dialogue.
Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In 1534, Ignatius and six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter Faber, gathered and professed vows of poverty, chastity, and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience to the Pope. Rule 13 of Ignatius's Rules for Thinking with the Church said: "That we may be altogether of the same mind and in conformity [...], if [the Church] shall have defined anything to be black which to our eyes appears to be white, we ought in like manner to pronounce it to be black."[2] Ignatius's plan of the order's organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by the bull containing the "Formula of the Institute".
Because of the military background of Ignatius and the members' willingness to accept orders anywhere in the world and to live in extreme conditions where required, the opening lines of this founding document would declare that the Society of Jesus was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God"[3] (Spanish: "todo el que quiera militar para Dios"),[4] "to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine."[5] Therefore Jesuits are sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's Soldiers"[6] or "God's Marines".[7] The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and later in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council in the Catholic Church.

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Ignatius Loyola

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Jesuit founder.

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Magnetic Compass

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1. The magnetic compass came into use in the 1400’s allowing navigators to chart their direction.

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Prince Henry the Navigator

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A. The Early Voyages Prince Henry the Navigator

1. Search for a sea alternative to reach the east was driven by the lure of gold and religious fervor which was accelerated by Muslim domination of traditional trade routes.
2. Exploration started with baby steps of sailing to the islands of the Atlantic off Africa – the Azores and the Canaries.
3. Portuguese efforts led by Prince Henry the Navigator who directed colonizing the Azores and Canaries as well as expanding voyages down the African coast.
4. Efforts were hindered by wind currents of the South Atlantic. (You can’t get there from here!) Winds near the Equator tend to blow from east while further north and south westerly winds prevailed while other areas were doldrums (no wind)
5. Introduced sugar cane production to the Azores and Madeira Islands – at first used Portuguese peasants but soon learned it was so labor intensive, and the climate so humid, they needed slaves – starts Portugal as a slaving country.
6. Built a slave based economy that rivaled the Romans in terms of their need for slaves to keep their economy afloat.

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Trading post empire

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1. Portuguese faced challenges in Asia trade – were competing with the Moguls and Arabs.
2. Built a trading post empire. Based on principle of strong fortified naval bases that could dominate the Indian Ocean.
3. By 1600 built a series of forts that extended from Madagascar and Mombassa in Africa to Goa in India and the island of Macao off the southeastern coast of China.

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Treaty of Tordesillas

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1. In the Treaty of Tordesillas the Pope granted Portugal all land south of the Azores and up to 1480 miles west which wound up giving the Portuguese the rights to Brazil while Spain was able to claim the rest of South America.

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Ferdinand Magellan

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1. In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan sailed around South America on a continued quest to reach China by going west.
a. Motives are unknown but he did want to sail around South America.
b. Most difficult was his quest to sail the straits between Tierra de Fuego and mainland South America. These waters were very rough and since that time this passage has been named the Straits of Magellan.
c. Then sailed west for 4 months before reaching the Philippines where he was killed four months later.
d. One ship sailed around the world and managed to get back to Cadiz with a crew of fifteen – the voyage had cost four ships and 245 men.

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Aztecs

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1. Aztecs conquered the peoples of the Valley of Mexico and built a city named Tenochtitlan on the island of Texcoco which had approximately 200,000 people – the only cities in the west which would have been that large were London, Constantinople and Naples.
a. Whole valley supported up to 1,000,000 people with a series of canals running through the valley that allowed for transport of food etc. into the city and between communities.
b. Aztec society based on subject tribes paying tribute in the form of maize, beans, squash and textiles and provide victims for Aztec sacrifice to their Sun Gods.
c. Treatment of subject peoples left a situation with unhappy subjects when Spain came on the scene.

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Hernan Cortes

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1. The Conquest of Mexico led by Hernan Cortes
a. Cortes given commission by Governor of Cuba to lead an expeditionary force but he was stripped of his commission.
b. Responded by burning his ships so his men could not go back.
c. After conquering local tribes he moved towards Aztec capitol of Tenochtitlan which is modern day Mexico City.
2. When Cortes began his march toward Tenochtitlan the Aztecs sent out emissaries with gold tribute which they may have interpreted as a demonstration of their wealth and superiority but the Spanish interpreted as a sign of submission.
3. Aztecs had an ancient belief a God would come someday from the east and force them to become his vassal.
4. Cortes took the Aztec leader Montezuma prisoner and thought they could force the Aztecs to surrender but despite being surrounded and suffering from small pox they held out for two years.
5. By August 1523 Cortez totally destroyed Tenochtitlan.
6. Following the conquest of the Aztec various Cortez lieutenants roamed throughout Mexico looking for treasure, including El Dorado the fabled City of Gold, terrorizing and killing the natives – these were mostly private armies with no support from the crown.

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Incas

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A. The Inca dominated the area along the western side of South America that ran from modern day Ecuador to Chile.

1. Like the Aztec the conquered peoples around them and generally were tolerant of other societies but were in political control and demanded tribute.
2. Built a system of irrigation canals, roads and impressive bridges. Also impressive buildings. Major crop was the potato.

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Francisco Pizarro

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1. The Incas in Peru conquered by Francisco Pizarro in 1533.

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Columbian Exchange

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A. The blending of the cultures of the two worlds is known as the Columbian Exchange.

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Henry VIII

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Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later assumed the Kingship, of Ireland, as well as continuing the nominal claim by the English monarchs to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty, succeeding his father, Henry VII.
Besides his six marriages, Henry VIII is known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry's struggles with Rome led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and his own establishment as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Yet he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, even after his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church.[1] Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.
In 1513, the new king allied with the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximillian I, and invaded France with a large, well-equipped army, but achieved little at a considerable financial cost. Maximillian, for his part, used the English invasion to his own ends, and this prejudiced England's ability to defeat the French. This foray would prove the start of an obsession for Henry, who invaded again in 1544. This time, Henry's forces captured the important city of Boulogne, but again the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, supported Henry only as long as he needed to and England, strained by the enormous cost of the war, ransomed the city back for peace.
His contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated and accomplished king, and he has been described as "one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne".[2] Besides ruling with considerable power, he also engaged himself as an author and composer. His desire to provide England with a male heir – which stemmed partly from personal vanity and partly because he believed a daughter would be unable to consolidate the Tudor dynasty and the fragile peace that existed following the Wars of the Roses[3] – led to the two things for which Henry is most remembered: his six marriages and the English Reformation. Henry became morbidly obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh, and insecure king.[4] He was succeeded by his son Edward VI.

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Sir Thomas More

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Sir Thomas More (/ˈmɔr/; 7 February 1478 – 6 July 1535), known to Roman Catholics as Saint Thomas More,[1][2] was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was an important councillor to Henry VIII and Lord Chancellor from October 1529 to 16 May 1532.[3] More opposed the Protestant Reformation, in particular the theology of Martin Luther and William Tyndale, whose books he burned and whose followers he persecuted. More also wrote Utopia, published in 1516, about the political system of an ideal and imaginary island nation. More later opposed the King's separation from the Catholic Church and refused to accept him as Supreme Head of the Church of England because it disparaged papal authority and Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Tried for treason, More was convicted on perjured testimony and beheaded.
Pope Pius XI canonised More in 1935 as a martyr of the schism that separated the Church of England from Rome; Pope John Paul II in 2000 declared More the "heavenly Patron of Statesmen and Politicians".[4] Since 1980, the Church of England has remembered More liturgically as a Reformation martyr.[5]

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Cardinal Thomas Wolsey

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(orson welles) Thomas Wolsey (c. March 1473[1] – 29 November 1530; sometimes spelled Woolsey) was an English political figure and cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, Wolsey became the King's almoner.[2] Wolsey's affairs prospered, and by 1514 he was the controlling figure in virtually all matters of state and extremely powerful within the Church. The highest political position he attained was Lord Chancellor, the King's chief adviser. In that position, he enjoyed great freedom, and was often depicted as an alter rex (other king).
Within the Church, he became Archbishop of York, the second most important seat in England, and then was made a cardinal in 1515, giving him precedence, even over the Archbishop of Canterbury. His main legacy is from his interest in architecture, in particular his old home of Hampton Court Palace, which stands today.

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Thomas Cromwell

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Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, KG (c. 1485 – 28 July 1540), was an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540.
Cromwell was one of the strongest advocates of the English Reformation. He helped to engineer an annulment of the king's marriage to the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon, in order to allow Henry to marry his mistress Anne Boleyn. After failure to obtain approval from the Pope, in 1534 parliament endorsed the king's claim to be head of a breakaway Church of England, and Cromwell supervised the new church from the unique posts of vicegerent in spirituals and vicar-general.
During his rise, Cromwell made many enemies. He fell from power after arranging the king's marriage to a German princess, Anne of Cleves. Cromwell hoped that the marriage would breathe fresh life into the Reformation in England, but it turned into a disaster for Cromwell and ended in annulment just six months later. Cromwell was arraigned under a bill of attainder and executed for treason and heresy on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540. The king later expressed regret at the loss of his chief minister.
Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), the Parliamentarian leader who overthrew the monarchy during the English Civil War, was a great-great-grandson of Thomas Cromwell's sister, Katherine Williams (born circa 1482).

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The Thirty Years War

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The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was a series of wars principally fought in Central Europe, involving most of the countries of Europe.[10] It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, and one of the longest continuous wars in modern history.
Initially, religion was a motivation for war as Protestant and Catholic states battled it out even though they all were inside the Holy Roman Empire. Changing the relative balance of power within the Empire was at issue. Gradually, it developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers of Europe.[11] In this general phase the war became less specifically religious and more a continuation of the Bourbon–Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence, leading in turn to further warfare between France and the Habsburg powers.[12]
A major consequence of the Thirty Years' War was the devastation of entire regions, denuded by the foraging armies (bellum se ipsum alet). Famine and disease significantly decreased the population of the German states, Bohemia, the Low Countries, and Italy; most of the combatant powers were bankrupted. While the regiments within each army were not strictly mercenary, in that they were not units for hire that changed sides from battle to battle, some individual soldiers that made up the regiments were mercenaries. The problem of discipline was made more difficult by the ad hoc nature of 17th-century military financing; armies were expected to be largely self-funding, by means of loot taken or tribute extorted from the settlements where they operated. This encouraged a form of lawlessness that imposed severe hardship on inhabitants of the occupied territory.
The Thirty Years' War was ended with the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, part of the wider Peace of Westphalia.[13] Some of the quarrels that provoked the war went unresolved for a much longer time.

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Peace of Westphalia

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The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in Osnabrück and Münster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic.

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Philip II

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Philip II (Spanish: Felipe II; 21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598) was King of Spain[1] from 1556 and of Portugal from 1581 (as Philip I, Filipe I). From 1554 he was King of Naples and Sicily as well as Duke of Milan. During his marriage to Queen Mary I (1554–58), he was also King of England and Ireland.[2][3] From 1555, he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Known in Spanish as "Philip the Prudent" (Felipe el Prudente), his empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, including his namesake Philippine Islands. During his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. The expression "The empire on which the sun never sets" was coined during Philip's time to reflect the extent of his possessions.
During Philip's reign there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596. This was partly the cause for the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in 1581. A devout Catholic, Philip is also known for organizing a huge naval expedition against Protestant England in 1588, known usually as the Spanish Armada, which was unsuccessful, partly due to storms and grave logistical problems.
Philip was described by the Venetian ambassador Paolo Fagolo in 1563 as "slight of stature and round-faced, with pale blue eyes, somewhat prominent lip, and pink skin, but his overall appearance is very attractive." The Ambassador went on to say "He dresses very tastefully, and everything that he does is courteous and gracious."[4]

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Edict of Nantes

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a. In 1598 Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes which gave Huguenots the right to practice their faith and to maintain garrisons for their own protection.

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Cardinal Richelieu

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5. Louis XIII served by his leading minister Cardinal Richelieu.
a. Richelieu believed the chief threat to the French now came from the Hapsburgs not the Huguenots.
i. When the Dutch went to war with the Spanish Richelieu went to the aid of the Protestants and he also supported German and Swedish princes fighting the Hapsburgs in Spain and Germany.
ii. Many Catholics opposed his fight against other Catholic powers and also opposed the high taxes his war necessitated.
iii. Richelieu’s moves seemed to pay off with French gains following the Thirty Years War.