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124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Monomers
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"single molecule" the small repeating unites that comprise the macromolecules that make up cells.
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Polymers
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large molecule formed from 100s or 1000s of monomers.
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4 Main Biomolecules
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Proteins (CHNO) Carbs (CHO) Lipids (CHO) Nucleic Acids (CHNOP)
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Protein Functions
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enzyme, transport, storage, membrane building, cellular movement, gene switches, intracellular messenger.
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Amino Acids
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monomers of proteins, so named for the NH2 (amino) group at one end and the COOH (carboxyl) group at the other.
Differentiation between aminos comes from the addition of an R (variable) group to the central carbon. Interactions between R groups gives proteins their complex 3D shapes. |
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Sulfhydryl
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-SH attachment that allows 2 sulfur containing amino acids to link in sulfur to sulfur bonds.
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Monomeric Amino Acids
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can be found as zwitterions at physiologic pH, allows them to act as pH buffers, by sucking up the free H+(by the carboxyl end is negative) and OH- (amino end is positively charged) ions in the water and keeping them out of solution they keep the pH level balanced.
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Dehydration Synthesis
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process by which two amino acids attach, the carboxyl of one binds to the amino of another to form a dipeptide, the OH of the carboxyl (acid group) and the H of the amino group are removed, forming H2O, hence- dehydration. Continuing in this fashion produces polypeptides.
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4 Levels of Protein Structure
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Primary - linear order of the AA chain
Secondary - alpha (tightly wound) or beta-pleated (straight AA chains held by H bonds) helices Tertiary - bonding and interaction between AA side chains, gives the 3D structure of proteins Quaternary - multi-subunit structure, functions as none can alone, e.g. hemoglobin-tetramer, collagen-trimer |
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Lipids
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non polar, insoluble in water, used for energy storage, membrane formation, protection. some are vitamins or hormones - 4 forms glycerides, fatty acids, complex lipids and nonglycerides.
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Fatty Acid Formula
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CH3(CH2)nCOOH, where n is a number between 12 and 24, always even.
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Sat v. Unsat
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Saturated - only single H bonds in their hydrocarbon chains
Unsaturated - have one or more double bonds, create kinks in the structure. |
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Membrane Fluidity and Unsat Fats
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kinks in unsat fats push other fats near them aside and create space between the lipids, these spaces allow the membranes to resist solidifying as temps cool.
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Glycerides
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esters made of glycerol plus one to three fatty acid chains. those with one fatty acid attached - mono, two - di, three - tri.
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Phospholipids
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glycerol + 2 fatty acid chains + P group attached to a variable R group. the P end is hydrophilic, the fatty acid tails are phobic, it's an amphipathic molecule, heads face out tails face in.
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Emulsification
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process in which amphipathic lipids surround a fat droplet and break it into smaller particles, the fatty acid tails surround the nonpolar substance and break it into small pieces, detergent.
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Lipid Aggregates
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complex formed by lipids + proteins or other molecules
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Chylomicrons
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complex lipid which surrounds and transports fats from the intestines to other tissues
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Steroid
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non glyceride - core made up of 4 carbon rings off which hang different variable groups, function depends on the variable, include cholest, test and est. pass freely though the cell membrane to directly effect DNA in the cells
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Carbs
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derived from monosaccharides (CHO) general formula is (CH2O)n where n represents the number of carbons in the sugar ring or chain.
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Glycosidic Bond
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bond that joins one carb to another, they bridge one sugar to another across an atom of O2, they come in two varieties alpha (twisty) which are found in sugar storgage molecules like glycogen or beta (straight) which are found in structural carbs (cellulose)
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Oligo v. Poly
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oligo means multiple but short (carb made of 2 to 10 sugars) polysaccharides are made of more than 10 sugars.
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Chitin
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amino sugar that builds the hard exoskeleton of insects and crustaceans, very similar to cellulose in that it has beta bonds.
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Nucleic Acids
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information storage molecules made up of nucleotides, has three distinct parts: a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogenous base.
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ATP
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in addition to being the main energy molecule of cells, ATP can be used as an RNA nucleotide
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DNA
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2x stranded molecule held together by H bonds in an antiparallel fashion, G-C, A-T
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Ribose v. Deoxyribose
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ribose has attached to it, 2 -OH groups at 2' and 3'. in DNA one of the -OH groups is replaced with an -H, also RNA uses Uracil instead of Thymine.
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Enzymes
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proteins with specific conformations that allow them to bind to particular molecules (substrate) to increase the rate of reaction between the molecules.
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Catalyst
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any chemical agent that accelerates a reaction without being permanently changed in the reaction. Enzymes are catalysts that can be used over and over again
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Activation Energy
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energy need to initiate a chemical reaction.
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Lock and Key Model
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spatial structure of an enzyme's active site is exactly complimentary to the spatial structure of the substrate.
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Induced Fit Model
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active site has flexibility that allows the 3D shape of the enzyme to shift in order to accomodate the incoming substrate molecule.
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Enzyme Names
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enzyme job-ase.
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2 Active Site Domains
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catalytic site and binding site, catalytic site is where the reaction occurs. binding site consist of amino acids to which the substrate forms temp bonds.
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Transition State
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brief moment during a reaction during which the substrate is neither the original molecule nor the product.
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Vitamin Importance
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they act as cofactors for enzymes, without the some enzymes couldn't work.
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Feedback Inhibition (enzymes)
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end product of the reaction works to block the original enzymes that started the reaction
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Competitive Inhibition
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reduces the productivity of enzymes because certain molecules are competing with the substrate for the enzymes active sites. Sulfa drugs for example, the fuck up bacterial folic acid production through inhibition
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Irreversible Inhibitors
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competitive inhibitors that chemically and covalently bind to an enzyme's active site, renders the enzyme inactive
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Pseudoirreversible Inhibitors
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have extremely high affinities for enzyme active sites, not permanent but hard to displace
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Noncompetitive Inhibitor
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doesn't compete with the substrate but acts elsewhere thereby changing the proteins structure rendering it inactive.
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Allosteric Site
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site other than the active site to which substances can bind and further increase the speed of reaction, hemoglobin for example. when one of the subunits gets oxygenated it increases the affinity for O2 in the others making them more effective
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Amoeba Digestion
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pseudopods surround and engulf food (via phagocytosis) and enclose it in food vacuoles, lysosomes fuse IC digestion - with the vacuoles and break down the food, the resulting smaller molecules can diffuse into the cytoplasm, waste is then evacuated from the vacuoles.
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Paramecium Digestion
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IC digestion - cilia sweep the food in, food vacuole forms, moves toward the back of the cell during which time enzymes act on the food, solid wastes excreted through anal pore.
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Hydra Digestion
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both IC and EC, food is swept into the mouth pore and winds up in the gastrovasular cavity, endodermal cells there release digestive enzymes (EC), after the particles are broken down gastrodermal cells engulf the fragments and digestion in completed (EC)
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Earthworm Digestion
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complete tract (one way-two opening) has a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop (storage), gizzard (grind food) intestine (with dorsal fold to inc. SA) and anus.
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What are some foods high in sodium?
What kind of people need to monitor this intake to 2gm? |
processed: turkey/chicken ham bologna salami bacon
canned foods: chicken tuna salmon shellfish beans vegatables pickles olives dairy: processed cheese buttermilk cocoa mixes potatoes: au gratin scalloped packed with sauces and seasoning mixes spices and seasoning: salt soy sauce dressings condiments clients with CHF and RENAL INSUFFIENCY |
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Gastric Juice Action
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highly acidic salt solution, disrupts the H bonds and 2ndary structure of proteins. the unfolded proteins are then acted upon by proteases (which are active only at low pH)
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Food Stratification in Gut
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food stratifies in the stomach according to size, density and H2O sol. fats and lipids float to top, carbs and small proteins remain in middle, large proteins sink to bottom. Pancreas = bicarbonate and enzymes (neutralize acid) Bile = emulsifier (helps absorb fat)
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Chyme
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partially digested mass of food in the gut
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Bile Salts
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recycled, reabsorbed after each use by the ileum.
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Saliva
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contains salivary amylase, which is inactivated by the stomach's acid, but some remains in the center of a food bolus and accounts for half of food digestion. secreted by the mouth.
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Esophageal Sphincters
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the UES and LES, at the top and bottom respectively, control the passage of food to the stomach. UES prevents air from getting in, LES prevents backup.
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Duodenal Delivery of Food
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takes place at roughly the same rate as digestion
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Stomach Ulcers
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too much H+ secretion compounded with infection by Helicobacter pylori, stomach cells affected by the bacteria aren't able to produce adequate mucus and can't protect the stomach against the acid.
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Small Intestine Segments
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Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum (in that order) cast majority of digestion and absorption occurs here.
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CCK
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cholecystikinin, hormone released in the duodenum. stimulates release of lipase, amylase and bile. also signals the pyloric sphincter to slow the rate of chyme flow. CCK controls the NFL for fat breakdown.
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Secretin
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also controls the pyloric sphincter, since the rate of chyme flow from the stomach to the SI dictates the acidity of the stomach, Secretin is the controller of the stomach pH NFL.
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Gastrin
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triggered by elevated concentrations of peptides and amino acids in the duodenum, controls the NFL for protein breakdown.
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Villi
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huge surface areas, drain collectively into the HPV (hepatic portal vein) which pushes blood rapidly through the liver so the biomolecules within can be modified, packaged and stored.
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Fat Transport
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often fatty molecules are transported across the CM by protein coated vesicles (such as chylomicrons) because fats can easily remain dissolved within the fatty bilayer of a cell membrane.
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AA and Protein Absorption
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HCl and Pepsin denature them, proteases (trypsin and chymotrypsin) are secreted by the pancreas to break them down further. neutrals diffuse right through the villi, charged particles do so by facilitated diff. some very small peptides are absorbed through endocytosis by the gastrodermal cells.
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Lacteal
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lymphatic sac located in each intestinal villi, absorb chylomicrons which are routed to the liver where they can be distributed by carrier molecules.
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A, D, E, K Overdose
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because these vitamins are fat soluble they aren't secreted in the urine, they become dissolved into fatty tissue and directly into cells. you can overload on them.
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Essential Amino Acids
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of the 20 we need to build proteins, humans can make 12. the other 8 must be ingested, these are known as the essential AAs.
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Monera
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aka bacteria, simple single celled organisms that have colonized every inhabitable spot on the planet. Tend to be classified according to shape.
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Prokaryote
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= Monera = Bacteria, these terms can be used interchangeably. ALL are single celled and lack membrane bound internal structures.
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Kingdoms of Monera
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2 distinct - bacteria and archaebacteria, according to rRNA analysis archae are more closely related to euks than to bacteria.
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Nucleoid
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present in bacteria instead of a nucleus, it's the region in a bacteria in which the genome (a single circular DNA) is concentrated
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Bacterial Cytosol
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lack of internal membrane bound organelles means the whole thing is cytosol surrounded by a membrane.
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Plasmid
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small circular extrachromosomal DNAs containing a few genes.
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Peptidoglycan
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polysaccharides cross linked by peptides that contain amino acids with the D-stereochemistry, proteins normally found in organisms have the L-stereochemistry. Makes up the porous cell wall of most prokaryotes. Archaebacteria lack it.
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Gram positive v. Gram negative
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(+) have thick peptidoglycan cell walls that hold stain but have no outer membrane, (-) have a thin cell wall and an outer membrane.
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Capsule
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layer of sticky polysaccharides found around the cell membrane and cell wall of Prokaryotes
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Flagella
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in prokaryotes = made of flagellin
in eukaryotes = microtubules form them with motor proteins to drive movement |
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Binary Fission
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cell replicates DNA, divides into two
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Obligate Anaerobes
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cannot survive in oxygen
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Facultative Anaerobes
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can survive with or without oxygen
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Obligate Aerobes
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require oxygen
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Photoautotrophs
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use light to generate energy and produce their own nutrients
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Chemoautotrophs
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produce own nutrients but use energy derived from inorganic molecules to drive nutrient production rather than using the sun, this type fixes N2.
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Chemoheterotrophs
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consume organic molecules for both carbon and energy.
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Protists
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single-celled euks, first organisms with specialized organelles.
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Endosymbiont Theory
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suggests that many of the organelles present in euk cells were once their own free living prokaryotic cells. Large cells engulfed smaller ones but didn't digest them, the ingested cell provided something the larger cell couldn't get otherwise. Cyanobacteria.
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Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
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contain enzymes and proteins in the inner membranes that are similar to bacterial proteins, replicate independent of their host cell, have their own DNA and ribosomes (though not enough to exist independently)
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Protist Origins
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arose about 2bya, life then remained unicellular for about 1.5by until the Cambrian Explosion around 550mya.
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Major Phyla of Protists
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at least 30, maybe 50, not monophyletic.
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Major Types of Protists
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animal like (sarcodines, amoebas, ciliates, flagellates) - plantlike (look for phylum name -phyta) - funguslike (phylum name -mycota)
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Protozoans
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animal like protists, classified mainly by how they move - flagellates, ciliates, pseudopods.
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Plasmodium
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huge single cell inside which resides thousands of individual nuclei
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Plastids
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pigment storing organelles that give plantlike protists their bright coloration. Chloroplasts - green plastids that hold chlorophyll, carotenoid - yellow, xanthophylls - brown
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Dinoflagellates and Red Tides
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rapid growth of dinoflagellate populations within an aquatic system is called a bloom and blooms can kill off marine organisms due to the toxins they release
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Fungi
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eukaryotic, usually multicellular, once thought of as flawed plants because of their lack of photosynthetic capability. get their nutrients and water through absorption.
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Saprobes
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fungi that derive their nutrients from non living matter, they can also be parasitic or mutualistic.
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Hyphae
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long strands of cells that are attached end to end, form the structure of fungi.
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Mycelium
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mat of woven hyphae
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Zygomycetes
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reproduction occurs through the use of two different reproductive structures, one male and one female, each on a different hyphae, called gametangia (they contain several haploid nuclei each)
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Plasmogamy
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fusing of the female and male gametangia, during which the (n) nuclei in the hyphae pair off and fuse in a process called karyogamy.
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Mycorrhizae
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fungi which joins a plant, fungi posts up on the root to help the plant absorb water, in return it gets water and nutrients. Zygomycete.
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Ascomycetes
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similar in repro to zygomycetes except in this case the male just deposits the (n) cell on the female and the female takes care of the process of karyogamy within an enclosed compartment or ascus.
members include yeasts. |
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Basidiomycetes
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members include mushrooms, club fungi. release multitudinous spores, haploid hyphae meet after the spores are on the ground, forming a dikaryotic hyphae which will grow into new hyphae.
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Lichens
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fungus + algae + rock or tree - pollution
algal cells produce food, fungus absorbs water and protects the algae. |
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Hardy - Weinberg Law Background
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GH Hardy and W Weinberg, 1908, states that sexual recombination alone cannot change the relative frequencies of alleles or genotypes in a population over the course of repeated matings. meiosis has no effect on the gene pool of a population.
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Nonevolving Population
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is one in which there is:
No emigration or immigration Large population size No mutations Random mating No natural selection Not possible in nature. |
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p + q
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= 1, used for frequencies of single alleles. p is the dominant allele, q is the recessive
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p2 + 2pq +q2
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= 1, used for frequencies of individuals expressing a particular trait
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Phylogeny
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the relationship of one species to another.
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Systematics
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the process of classifying organisms based on their phylogeny, changes as new data or techniques are devised.
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Cladistics
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the grouping of species determined to be related because they all share some distinguishing novel feature, e.g, the use of hard shelled amniote eggs by different species put them all in the same clade.
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Divergent Evolution
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the process in which many species arise over time from a common ancestor.
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Convergent Evolution
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occurs when species with no recent common ancestor and not much genetic similarity evolve nearly identical structures because they happen to live in very similar environments.
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DNA Replicates for...
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both cell division (meiosis and mitosis) and for protein synthesis.
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Nucleotides are composed of...
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deoxyribose (or ribose) attached to a phosphate group attached to a nitrogenous base.
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4 DNA Bases
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Adenine, Guanine (purines - 2 fused carbon/nitrogen rings)
Thymine, Cytosine (pyrimidines - single carbon/nitrogen ring) A pairs with T G pairs with C GA is bigger than CT |
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Polynucleotides
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chains of bonded nucleotides.
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DNA Molecule
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is a 2x stranded helix with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases as the "rungs" of the ladder (AGTC)
A+T = 2 H Bonds G+C = 3 H Bonds |
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Antiparallel
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if you were to look down from the top of a double helix downward, one side of the helix would run in the 5' --> 3' direction and the other in the 3' --> 5' direction.
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Origin of Replication
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site within the single bacterial chromosome or plasmid where replication begins and proceeds in both directions at once until the whole chromosome has been copied, generally found in A-T rich regions
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Forks of Origins of Replication
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several open simultaneously in eukaryotes to help increase the speed of the copying process on the chromosome.
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DNA Polymerase
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enzyme responsible for attaching together new nucleotides as they arrive at the parental strand, able to add 500 nucleotides per second in bacteria and 50 nucleotides per second in eukaryotes.
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Triphosphate Nucleotide
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dNTP, state in which the new nucleotide arrives at the replication site. when it attaches to the strand only one phosphate is used in binding to the sugar of the neighboring nucleotide, each one loses 2 phosphates ("leaving groups"), the reaction is exergonic and provides the energy for the nucleotides to attach to the growing strand.
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DNA Polymerase Coding Direction
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5' to 3' only, new DNA strands are built in opposite directions.
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Leading Strand
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strand that is being copied in the direction of the advancing replication fork
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Lagging Strand
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strand being copied in the direction away from the replication fork's movement
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