Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
227 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Whatis the Coriolis force? |
Once air has been set in motion by the pressure gradient force, it undergoes an apparent deflection from its path, asseen by an observer on the earth. This apparent deflection is called the"Coriolis force" and is a result of the earth's rotation. |
|
|
Whatis latent heat? |
is energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system, duringa constant-temperature process that is specified in some way. An example is latentheat of fusion for a phase change, melting, at a specified temperature andpressure. |
|
|
Whatcontrols the path of a hurricane? |
Thehemisphere in which the hurricane develops. Northern hemisphere the hurricanespath is counterclockwise whereas in the Southern hemisphere the hurricanetravels clockwise. |
|
|
What is agroin and how does it affect beach erosion? |
Structures:sea walls or revetments that are build by humans to reduce seasonal or longterm erosion to preserve the summer beach condition. |
|
|
Whydo hurricanes not cross the equator? |
Coriolis Force is near zero near the equator, so you don't get theturning needed to spin the air into tight low-pressure centers, so they don'tform within 5 or so degrees latitude of the equator. |
|
|
Whathuman activities can increase beach erosion? |
Urbanization,Added structures along the edge – pools and patio, Irrigation and otheractivities. |
|
|
Whatis a storm surge? |
Amound of water in center of hurricane being sucked up, The adding effect oftide, dome, wind wave and up slope on over all storm surge |
|
|
Howdoes refraction concentrate erosion at headlands? |
Thedirection in which the wave refracts causes a build up in that direction. Thelong term effect of greater energy expenditure on protruding areas isdifferential erosion/beach erosion |
|
|
Coriolisforce |
Onceair has been set in motion by the pressure gradient force, it undergoes anapparent deflection from its path, as seen by an observer on the earth. Thisapparent deflection is called the "Coriolis force" and is a result ofthe earth's rotation. |
|
|
Cyclone: |
Hurricanes– Typhoon: Feedback: Warm water leads to water evaporation, warm, moisturizedair rises, condensation releases latent heat, Low pressure sucks in air,increases evaporation. |
|
|
Beach |
sediments that accumulate along the sea or lake shores, theconfiguration and contours of which depend on the action of coastal processes, the kindsof sediment involved, and the rate of delivery of this sediment. |
|
|
Jetty/Groin |
Structures:sea walls or revetments that are build by humans to reduce seasonal or longterm erosion to preserve the summer beach condition. Benefits: Improvenavigation, retard erosion, recreational beach expansion. problems:Interference with long shore currents, causing unintended adjacent localerosion and deposition. |
|
|
Stormsurge |
Moundof water in center of hurricane being sucked up. The adding effect of tide,dome, wind wave, and up slope on over all storm surge |
|
|
Latentheat: |
is energy released or absorbed, by a body or athermodynamic system, during a constant-temperature process that is specifiedin some way. An example is latent heat of fusion for a phase change,melting, at a specified temperature and pressure. |
|
|
Refraction |
Wavesbent because shore proximal wave train slows down first. 1. A fast-travelingwave approaches from deep water, 2. The part of the wave closest to the beachslows, causing the line of waves to refract toward the beach, 3. Waves benttowards the projecting part of the shore, increasing the wave impact on theheadland, 4. Paths of crests diverge, decreasing the wave impact on the beach. |
|
|
Sandbudget/Beach budget: |
Sandis delivered to the beach by erosion and by Rivers. |
|
|
Cyclone |
ripcurrent, sedimentary transport, long shore current, convection, erosion,hurricane, sea wall, |
|
|
Hadleycell: |
1.Moist warm air expands, rises, 2-1. Cools, condenses, rain falls, 2-2. Dry airgets compressed while moving north (less area). 3. Dense air sinks in subtropics, 4. Warm, dry air spreads at surface, 5. Waves approach the shore at anangle, causing a longshore current parallel to the shoreline, 6. Longshoredrift result in movement sand particles by swash and backwash. |
|
|
Tide |
the alternate rising and falling ofthe sea, usually twice in each lunar day at a particular place, due to theattraction of the moon and sun. |
|
|
Floodplain |
|
|
|
Drainagebasin |
A drainage basinor catchment basin is an extent or an area of land where surface waterfrom rain, melting snow, or ice converges to a single point at a lowerelevation, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join anotherwaterbody, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean. |
|
|
River terrace |
River terrace, benchor step that extends along the side of a valley and represents aformer level of the valley floor. A terrace results from any hydrological orclimatic shift that causes renewed downcutting. It generally has a flat topmade up of sedimentary deposits and a steep fore edge, and it may be theremains of an old floodplain,cut through by the river and left standing above the present floodplain level. |
|
|
Permeability |
Permeability is the property of rocks that is an indication of the ability forfluids (gas or liquid) to flow through rocks. High permeability willallow fluids to move rapidly through rocks. Permeability is affected bythe pressure in a rock. |
|
|
Spring |
A spring is a water resourceformed when the side of a hill, a valley bottom or other excavation intersectsa flowing body of groundwater at or below the local water table, below whichthe subsurface material is saturated with water. A spring is the result of anaquifer being filled to the point that the water overflows onto the landsurface. |
|
|
Gradient |
Gradient is the slope of a stream(rise/run). It is usually measured in feet/mile. Gradient decreases asstream moves from the mountains towards the sea. Mountain streamgradients are 50 to 200 ft/mile whereas lowland stream gradients are less than5 feet/mile. Streams with steeper gradients have higher velocities. |
|
|
Alluvialfan: |
Sedimentsdeposited as river widens dramically (and velocity decreases) upon going frommountainous valley to plain |
|
|
Watertable: |
|
|
|
Recharge |
As the water recedes, it leaves behind silt andclay. Thus, floodplain deposits build successive, horizontal layers ofsilt and clay.The coarsest sediment is deposited directly adjacent to thestream and may form a natural levee. |
|
|
Vadosezone: |
The vadose zone, also termed the unsaturated zone, is thepart of Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zonei.e. the position at which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) isat atmospheric pressure ("vadose" is from the Latin for "shallow"). |
|
|
Artesianaquifer: |
An artesianaquifer is a confined aquifer containing groundwater under positivepressure. This causes the water level in a well to rise to a point wherehydrostatic equilibrium has been reached. A well drilled into such an aquiferis called an artesian well. |
|
|
Groundwateroverdraft |
Overdrafting is the process of extracting groundwater beyond the safe yieldor equilibrium yield of the aquifer. |
|
|
Dendritic |
Treelike pattern that forms on rockor sediment that easily erodes (very common). |
|
|
Longitudinalprofile |
TIME 1: Amature stream has developed a classic stream profile, TIME 2: A change in baselevels, in this case by faulting, changes the profile, TIME 3: Erosion movesmaterial toward sea level. Sediment formerly moving to the river delta is nowdeposited in the lake. Previous delta is mostly abandoned, TIME 4 |
|
|
Erosion |
There are 3 primary ways that streams erode intotheir channel: 1) Hydraulic action – flowing water pries rocks loose 2)Solution – flowing water may gradually dissolve some rock types or cements. 3)Abrasion - flowing water causes the stream channel bedrock to erode from impactwith the sediment load (ex. potholes) |
|
|
Naturallevee: |
A stream that is sinuous. They develop in areaswith low gradients (lower energy than braided streams). Example: The Alaskameandering stream |
|
|
Streamgradient: |
Stream gradient is the grade measured by the ratio of drop in elevation of a streamper unit horizontal distance, usually expressed as feet per mile or metres perkilometre. |
|
|
Meanders |
A stream that issinuous.They develop in areas with low gradients (lower energy than braidedstreams). |
|
|
Recurrenceinterval |
A return period, also known as a recurrence interval(sometimes repeat interval) is an estimate of the likelihood of anevent, such as an earthquake, flood or a river discharge flow to occur. |
|
|
Surfacerunoff: |
Surface runoff is water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, that flows over the land surface, and is a major component of the water cycle. Runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called overland flow. A land area which produces runoff draining to a common point is called a watershed.
|
|
|
Turbulentflow |
|
|
|
Saturatedzone
|
The phreatic zone,or zone of saturation, is the area in an aquifer, below the watertable, in which relatively all pores and fractures are saturated withwater. The phreatic zone defines the lower edge of the vadose zone. |
|
|
Confinedaquifer |
Confined aquifers are those in which an impermeable dirt/rocklayer exists that prevents water from seeping into the aquifer from theground surface located directly above. |
|
|
Alluvialfan: |
a fan-shaped mass of alluvium deposited as the flow of a river decreasesin velocity. |
|
|
Drainage |
The totalarea of land drained by a stream and all of its branches or tributaries/feeders. Drainage basins are separated by topographichighs called divides. For example. the “Continental Divide”separates streams that flow to the Pacific from streams that flow to theAtlantic.Drainage Pattern- Pattern formed by astream and all of its branches and tributaries. Drainage patterns arecontrolled by the rock or sediment underlying the stream so they tell you aboutbedrock. |
|
|
Grade |
metamorphic rock: Regional metamorphism: ...faciesseries rocks that measure a few tens of kilometres in diameter are juxtaposedagainst unmetamorphosed sediments or very low-grade metamorphic rocks alonglow-angle extensional faults. (Metamorphic grades refer to the degree andintensity of the metamorphism: they are determined by the pressure andtemperatures to which the rock has been subjected.) Such areas are generallyreferred |
|
|
Delta |
anarea of low land where a river spreads into many smaller rivers near the sea: |
|
|
Saltation |
is a specific type of particle transport by fluids such as windor water. It occurs when loose material is removed from a bed and carried bythe fluid, before being transported back to the surface. |
|
|
Rainshadow: |
|
|
|
Hydraulicconductivity |
On the basis ofEquation 5.1, the hydraulic conductivity is defined as the ratioof Darcy's velocity to the applied hydraulic gradient. The dimension ofK is the same as that for velocity,that is, length per unit of time (IT-1). |
|
|
Aquifer |
a body of permeablerock that can contain or transmit groundwater |
|
|
Bedload |
The term bed loador bedload describes particles in a flowing fluid (usually water) thatare transported along the bed. Bed load is complementary tosuspended load and wash load. Bed load moves by rolling,sliding, and/or saltating (hopping). |
|
|
Porosity |
Waterstorage capability. Noncemeneted Sandstone is more porous than cementedsandstone. Basically sediment that has more space in between the sediment forwater to go inside making it more porous. Sediments with less space in betweenthem are less porous. |
|
|
Coneof depression |
A cone ofdepression occurs in an aquifer when groundwater is pumped from a well. Inan unconfined aquifer (water table), this is an actual depression of thewater levels. |
|
|
Laminarflow: |
A laminar flowcabinet or laminar flow closet or tissue culture hood is acarefully enclosed bench designed to prevent contamination of semiconductorwafers, biological samples, or any particle sensitive materials. Air is drawnthrough a HEPA filter and blown in a very smooth, laminar flow towardsthe user. |
|
|
Competence |
refers to the degree of resistance of rocks to either erosion ordeformation in terms of relative mechanical strength. In mining 'competentrocks' are those in which an unsupported opening can be made. |
|
|
Divide |
A ridge or othertopographic feature that separates two adjacent drainage basins. It is animaginary line that separates two different directions of surface water flow. |
|
|
Floodplain |
the area on both sides of a stream channel.Typically this area is dry, but in times of flood the stream will overflow its bank and the floodplain will be covered with water.
|
|
|
Oxbowlake: |
As meanders becomeextremely sinuous, there is more and more chance that the river will choose ashorter path and cut thru a meander (meander cutoff). The isolatedmeander then becomes a crescent-shaped oxbow lake. |
|
|
Pointbar: |
Water in meanderingstreams moves faster on the outside of the meander than on the inside of themeander. Erosion occurs on the outside of the curve while depositionoccurs on the inside. The sediment in the inside of curves produces pointbars. |
|
|
Terrace |
is a step-like landform. A terrace consists of a flat or gentlysloping geomorphic surface, called a tread, that is typically bounded one sideby a steeper ascending slope, which is called a "riser" or"scarp." |
|
|
Settlingvelocity: |
If the particle is falling in theviscous fluid under its own weight due to gravity, then a terminal velocity,or settling velocity, is reached when this frictional force combinedwith the buoyant force exactly balances the gravitational force. |
|
|
Capacitytributary: |
a stream or river that flows into a larger river |
|
|
Geoengineering |
the deliberate large-scalemanipulation of an environmental process that affects the earth's climate, inan attempt to counteract the effects of global warming. |
|
|
Whatis mitigation? |
the action of reducing theseverity, seriousness, or painfulness of something. Reducing emissions ofgreenhouse gases |
|
|
Whatis adaptation? |
Managingthe change that occurs. Anticipatory Adaptation: Taking proactive steps toreduce the risks associated with climate change for individuals, communities,and ecosystems. Reactive Adaptation: Dealing with climate impactsafter-the-fact |
|
|
Whatis geoengineering? |
Geoengineering is the artificialmodification of Earths climate systems through two primary ideologies, SolarRadiation Management (SRM) and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) |
|
|
renewableenergy: |
Renewable energy is generally defined as energythat comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale,such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. |
|
|
adaptation |
Managingthe change that occurs. Anticipatory Adaptation: Taking proactive steps toreduce the risks associated with climate change for individuals, communities,and ecosystems. Reactive Adaptation: Dealing with climate impactsafter-the-fact |
|
|
albedo |
is the fraction of solar energy(shortwave radiation) reflected from the Earth back into space. It is a measureof the reflectivity of the earth's surface. Ice, especially with snow on top ofit, has a high albedo: most sunlight hitting the surface bounces backtowards space. |
|
|
solarradiation management |
is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction thatcreates electromagnetic energy. The spectrum of solar radiation is closeto that of a black body with a temperature of about 5800 K. About half of the radiationis in the visible short-wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum. |
|
|
biochar |
charcoal produced from plantmatter and stored in the soil as a means of removing carbon dioxide from theatmosphere. |
|
|
stabilizationlevels: |
|
|
|
aerosols |
a substance enclosed underpressure and able to be released as a fine spray, typically by means of apropellant gas. |
|
|
fertilization |
|
|
|
alternativeenergy |
a form of energyderived from a natural source, such as the sun, wind, tides, or waves. Alsocalled: renewable energy |
|
|
efficiency |
means using less energy toprovide the same level of energy. It is therefore one method to reduce humangreenhouse gas emissions. |
|
|
mitigation |
Naturaldisasters are, by definition, large and disruptive. And for those who areeconomically, politically, educationally, or technologically disadvantaged,they can be absolutely devastating. |
|
|
weathering |
The process by whichrocks are broken down into small grains and soil. Weathering can happenthrough rainfall, ice formation, or the action of living things, such as algaeand plant roots. It is part of the geological cycle. |
|
|
carbondioxide: |
a colorless, odorless gasproduced by burning carbon and organic compounds and by respiration. It isnaturally present in air (about 0.03 percent) and is absorbed by plants inphotosynthesis. |
|
|
removal |
|
|
|
metastability |
denotes the phenomenonwhen a system spends an extended time in a configuration other than thesystem's state of least energy. During a metastable state of finitelifetime all state-describing parameters reach and hold stationary values. |
|
|
CCS: Carboncapture and storage |
is the process of capturingwaste carbondioxide (CO2) from large point sources,such as fossil fuelpower plants, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing itwhere it will not enter the atmosphere, normally an underground geologicalformation. |
|
|
tipping point |
complex systems (like climate) can behave abruptly in the vicinity of bifurcations points chaos, happens when the present determines the future, but the approx present does not approx determine the future butterfly effect unpredictable over long times (weather forecast) |
|
|
butterfly effect |
sensitive dependence on initial conditions metastability, in nonlinear systems climate can be metastable--subject to runaway from positive feedback. phase state depends critically on parameters |
|
|
GCM (global circulation models/Global climate model) |
use mathematical models to understand the climate system, climate models do work (with uncertainties) on a large scale & can reproduce temperature response to past change in forcingcarbon cycle |
|
|
global warming |
cause: increase in greenhouse gases (man-made) from fossil fuels, cement & flaring. As well as forestry & other land use (but mostly from fossil fuels, humans have always affected the environment but now it is global and long-termair pollution is linked to climate change, warming is more intense over continents & at high latitudes |
|
|
Arctic |
Arctic ocean has been meltin, loss of sea & land ice (due to global warming) ice loss, 1980s started sea ice extent started dropping from 10 mil km2 to about 5 million now |
|
|
glacier retreat |
grinnell glacier in 1914 (ex), austria’s pasterze glacier |
|
|
sea level rise |
san francisco sea levels have been rising→ 100 inches in 1900s to 125 in 1998, sea level: 50% warming & 50% melting thermal expansion, there are patterns showing, sea level and thermal expansion correlationssea level is strongly non-uniform |
|
|
thermal expansion |
there are patterns showing sea level and thermal expansion correlations, sea level is strongly non-uniform
|
|
|
CO2 |
have increased to unprecedented levels in the last 800,000, years, have increased by 40% since pre-industrial times, primarily from fossil fuel emissons & from net land use change emissions, the ocean has absorbed about 30% of the emitted co2 causing ocean acidificationtemperature proxy |
|
|
nitrous oxide |
have increased to unprecedented levels in the last 800,000 years |
|
|
Methane |
have increased to unprecedented levels in the last 800,000 years |
|
|
greenhouse gases |
h2o, co2, ch4, CFCs & O3ocean acidity |
|
|
atmospheric CO2 |
it is increasing (bc of global warming)oceanic reservoir land use |
|
|
radiative forcing |
part of anthropogenic forcing, components: co2, ch4, o3, H2o |
|
|
ozone forcing |
part of anthropogenic forcingaerosol |
|
|
black carbon |
aerosols & precursors, fossil & biofuel |
|
|
aerosol cloud interactions |
part of anthropogenic forcing |
|
|
anthropogenic forcing |
stratospheric water vapour from CH4, surface albedo, contrails, areo-radiation interactin, aero cloud interaction, ozone |
|
|
climate models |
a mathematical, physical, or conceptual abstraction of reality that allows study, experimenting and deriving predictions ex: linear oscillator, short term weather prediction has to do with a chaotic system. long term climate is governed by non-linear feedbacks & we are possibly close to tipping points, they are physically based projections of greenhouse warming |
|
|
pathways |
time lag |
|
|
shorelines |
will expand in years to come (see pic) |
|
|
projection |
a part of climate models & how they project future climate changes |
|
|
sea level change |
sea level will continue to rise for hundreds of years even if emissions decline (inertia) |
|
|
weather |
natural phenomena within the atmosphere at a given time (seconds to hours to days) |
|
|
Climate |
average weather conditions & their range of variability of a long period of time (30+ years), has changed dramatically over earth’s history |
|
|
Radiative Balance |
earth's climate is determined by energy--goldilocks theory states that Earth is the perfect combination for a habitable planet, the solid earth + atmosphere receive heat energy from the sun but also radiate the SAME AMOUNT back into space (otherwise earth would accumulate to much heat to handle--now which is happening is called global warming) |
|
|
frequency |
waves have frequency & wavelength→ wave speed = frequency X wavelength, speed of light = frequency x wavelength |
|
|
wavelength |
determines how much energy protons have & it also controls if it’s absorbing energy or going through it |
|
|
Photons |
elementary particles (basic building blocks) characterized by oscillating electrical & magnetic fields that propagate through space--they behave like particles & waves, travel at the speed of light |
|
|
Electromagnetic Spectrum |
higher frequency=more energetic, vello & green (550 nm) are visible wavelengths, radiowaves (red), microwaves (orange), infrared(yellow/orange), visible (yellow/green),), ultraviolet (green), x-rays (blue), gamma rays (violet) |
|
|
Wien's law |
a part of black body radiation, wavelength of emitted radiation is shorter for bodies at higher temperature, objects that are cooler radiate longer wavelengths--so earth radiates longer wavelengths |
|
|
Black body radiation |
radiation emitted by non-reflective body held at constant temperature, use to approx radiation from stars & planets, sunlight is 500 nm which means it is mostly ultraviolet |
|
|
Absorption spectrum |
a spectrum of electromagnetic radiation transmitted through a substance showing dark lines or bands due to absorption of specific wavelengths |
|
|
greenhouse effect |
atmospheric gases only absorb longer wavelength energy→ this generates the effect: gases absorb small portion of outgoing radiation, the sun emits short wavelength radiation, which penetrates through the atmosphere to heat the earth. the earth emits long wavelength radiation which is absorbed on its way out by greenhouse gases, to maintain radiative balance temperature of the atmosphere must rise, which results in a thermal blanket ADD PIC IN LATER, we need greenhouse gases otherwise the earth would be like mars (to cold to be habitable) but if we change this relationship and produce too much radiation it will heat up the earth, making it warm like Venus (also not habitable) |
|
|
solar constant |
the sun’s radiation entry point into atmosphere, intensity: 1350 W/m2 |
|
|
Hadley cells |
low-latitude overturning circulations that have air rising at the equator & air sinking at roughly 30 degrees latitude, they are responsible for the trade winds in the tropics & the control low-latitude weather patterns |
|
|
great ocean conveyor |
ocean circulation→ moves water around the globe (the ocean is not a still body of water)constantly moving system of deep-ocean circulation driven by temperature & salinity |
|
|
thermohaline circulation |
ocean circulation→ sinking cool, salty water, rising warm fresh water & wind help to form global ocean current systems |
|
|
climate proxies |
geological objects sensitive to climate conditions, measurable quantities that substitute for something no longer measurable (ex: global temps 5 million years ago)ex: tree-ring width, 18O is since cores, marine sediments (foraminifera), & in coral skeletons--cross dating records from diff trees, often tied to stable water isotopes |
|
|
El Niño |
coming from indonesia & south american plate and ??? lec 18 slide, importance: it will cause drought in SE Asia & Australia & strong winter storms on US west coast, an irregularly occurring & complex series of climatic changes affecting equatorial Pacific region, marine life impacted:ca coast, south am coast, floods: south american coasts & florida coasts, coastal erosion: ca & south am coasts, droughts: mexico, south american coasts, australia, african coasts, taiwan etccoral reef damage: equator, galapagos islands (impacted bird life)forest fires: australia, new zealand, vietnam etctropical storms: tropic of cancer, tahiti |
|
|
La Nina |
upwelling leads to the warm water pool. SE trades & NE trades along the equator are going to go into indonesia?? Slide on lect 18, a cooling of the water in the equatorial pacific that occurs at irregular intervals and is associated with widespread changes in weather patterns complementary to those of el nino, but less extensive & damaging in their effects |
|
|
paleoclimatology |
how we tell about past climatehistorical recordschanges in growth (tree rings-core of trees, corals, speleothems)changes in organism/plant distribution (pollen records)chemical records (changes in isotopic ratios, in ice & sediment cores)geological evidence (glacial sediments), this can be determined by relative v absolute (stratigraphy v radiometric dating) |
|
|
climate forcings |
in regards to earth's energy balance there are three main long-term climate “forcings”, solar: changes in the intensity of solar radiation reaching the earthnot symmetric changes in climate, volcaniceruptions add aerosols to the atmosphere that increase reflection of radiation over short periods of time, but also add CO2 to the atmosphere that increases greenhouse warming over long periods of time, greenhouse forcingaddition of co2 to atmosphere contributes to climate warmingasymmetric changes in climate |
|
|
ice core |
ice age cycles over from ice cores in antarctica, temp changeslast true ice age was 40,000 years agoit is a core sample that is removed from an ice sheet (polar ice caps of Antarctica) |
|
|
Milankovitch cycle |
formalized Croll’s theory of glacial/interglacial theory (check there for more detail) over time tiny changes in earth's orbital dynamics change the amount of solar energy reaching earth--eccentricity, tilt & precession |
|
|
orbital changes |
a part of cycles ^^, changes solar energy reaching earth which leads to changes in global climate. this explains the repeating, cyclical changes from glacial to interglacial |
|
|
glacial/interglacial |
these cycles change back and forth (10 times) over the past 1 million years, cyclical, have repeating time of about 10 kyrs, james croll theory of these cycles:hypothesis that the changes in the earth's orbit cause glaciation, and milankovitch formalized the theory of croll’s to be relating changes in the earth's orbital parameters to climate change, asymmetric changes in climate may be associated with greenhouse forcing, from changes in CO2 (we still don't know why CO2 changes in the first place--big mystery in paleoclimatology.) |
|
|
obliquity |
part of milankovitch’s cyclesit happens at 41kyr |
|
|
albedo feedback |
reflectivity of the surface of earth--white is more reflective than black, pos albedo feedback: bc of an extended cold spell, oceans start freezing→ lowered reflectivity causes further cooling (snowball earth)→ CO2 cycle in ocean stops; CO2 outgassed by volcanoes builds up |
|
|
Boltzmann's law |
how much energy comes from the sun→ to find out we just need to know its temperatureS=kT^4S=amt of energy emitted from a black bodyk-constantt-temperaturewavelength=500 nm→ sun is about 5000-6000K = energy from sun is 340 W/m2ozone is a gas that has the oxygen connected in 3 ways--ring of oxygen, very harmful if we have too much of it CFC--but later found out it was a greenhouse gasmeant to replenish the ozone but also hurts us with greenhouse gasesmontreal protocol single handedly saved us from emitting 6 billion tons of co2 emissionUN saved us |
|
|
ENSO |
El Nino Southern Oscillationhow we can determine fluctuations & then the causes/effects of fluctuations, which then leads to how we can predict what will happen. |
|
|
global circulation models |
great ocean conveyor & thermohaline circulationdiscretization |
|
|
speleothem |
processes that discriminate against the heavy isotope are often tied to a climate variable interest like in evaporation--18) is left behind in seawater, and seawater is “isotopically heavier”when the climate is cold more water is tied up in glaciers--a paleo-thermometerglacier ice becomes a place to store 16o & the 18O/16O ratio in the ocean goes upwhen the climate is warm more water is in the ocean→ so the ratio goes down |
|
|
isotopes |
2+ forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but diff numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, hence a difference in relative atomic mass, but not in chemical properties (like radioactive form of an element) |
|
|
medieval warm period |
historical record of millenial (1000 year) climatea change in temperature occurred bw 1000-1400 AD and the temp changed from 0 to 0.5 back to 0 degrees celsius |
|
|
Little ice age |
temp change occurred (right after) from 1400 to 1900 AD going from 0 C to -0.5 with little spikes going back up and down throughout the 500 years. and then ending at above 0 C after 1900 AD |
|
|
eccentricity /obliquity/precession |
add in graph/picthese are tiny changes in earth's orbital dynamics that change the amt of solar energy reaching earthmilankovitch cycles |
|
|
What is Earth Systems Science |
Earth system science seeks tointegrate various fields of academic study to understand the Earth as a system. Earth system science embraces chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics andapplied sciences in transcending disciplinary boundaries to treat the Earth asan integrated system and seeks a deeper understanding of the physical,chemical, biological and human interactions that determine the past, currentand future states of the Earth. Earth system science provides a physical basisfor understanding the world in which we live and upon which humankind seeks toachieve sustainability. |
|
|
What is the greenhouse effect? |
The sun emits short wavelength radiation whichpenetrates through the atmosphere and heats the solid earth- the solid earthemits long wave length radiation which is absorbed by the greenhouse gases. Athermal blanket is the result of this( risingtemps maintain radiative balance) |
|
|
Why is albedo a critical factor in climaterelatedfeedbacks? |
Albedo- (snow that reflects thesunlight to prevent the earth from overheating...light reflected by a surface,for example that of a planet) used to define the percentage of solar energyreflected back by a surface -Understanding local, regional, and global albedoeffects is critical to predicting global climate change -The following are someof the factors that influence the earth's albedo: clouds, surface, oceans andforests -It is a very strong "positive feedback" (increases aninitial warming) that has been included in climate models since the 1970s |
|
|
List some ofthe longterm climate variability . How do we know past climate before theinstrumental era? |
Variability in climate (tropics at lowlatitudes, bands of desserts at mid-latitudes) as a consequences of unevensolar energy and convection transport.Historical records; change in growth (tree rings,spelotherms, pollen, corals); changes in organism/plant distribution (pollenrecords); chemical records (changes in isotopic ratios, in ice and sedimentcores); geological evidence (glacial sediments, rocks fossils) |
|
|
Weather |
natural phenomena within theatmosphere at a given time (seconds to hours to days) |
|
|
Climate |
the average weather conditions, andtheir range of variability, over a long period of time (~30 years or more) |
|
|
Radiative Balance |
the solid earth + atmosphere receiveheat energy from the sun but they also radiate the same amount of heat backinto space |
|
|
Frequency |
the number of times that somethinghappens during a particular period |
|
|
Wavelength |
distance from one wave of energy toanother as it is travelling from one point to another point |
|
|
Electromagnetic Spectrum |
is the range of all possiblefrequencies of electromagnetic radiation; the "electromagneticspectrum" of an object has a different meaning, and is instead thecharacteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed bythat particular object Higher frequency = more energetic |
|
|
Wien's Law |
a. relationship between temperatureof a black body and the wavelength at which it emits the most light b.wavelength of emitted radiation is shorter for bodies at higher temperatures c.Used to infer the temperature of the sun d. Sunlight wavelengths ~500 nm (UVradiation) 5500-6000 K e. Objects that are cooler radiate longer wavelengths -so Earth radiates long wavelengths |
|
|
Black body radiation |
radiation emitted by non-reflectivebody held at constant temperature- used to approximate radiation from stars andplanets |
|
|
Absorption |
is the way in which the energy of aphoton is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom; thus, theelectromagnetic energy is transformed to other forms of energy for example, toheat |
|
|
Spectrum |
group of colors that a ray of lightcan be separated into including red, orange, green, blue, indigo, and violet:the colors can be seen in a rainbow |
|
|
Greenhouse effect |
Energy radiated by the sun convertsto heat when it reaches earth. Some heat is reflected back through theatmosphere, while some is absorbed by atmospheric gases and radiated back toearth. |
|
|
Solar constant |
a measure of flux density, is theamount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would beincident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of oneastronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth) |
|
|
Hadley cells |
a large-scale atmospheric convectioncell in which air rises at the equator and sinks at medium latitudes Steps: 1.Moist warm air expands, rises 2. Cools, condenses, rain falls 3. Dense airsinks in sub tropics 4. Warmed, dry air spreads at surface |
|
|
Great ocean conveyor |
refers to a part of the large-scaleocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surfaceheat and freshwater fluxes |
|
|
Climate proxies |
preserved physical characteristics ofthe past that stand in for direct measurements (as statistical proxies), toenable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions that prevailed duringmuch of the Earth's history |
|
|
El Nino |
warm ocean temperature in Eastern Pacific( Indonesia..) when ocean surface gets too warm, it forms hurricane |
|
|
La Nina |
Cold ocean temperature in westernpacific |
|
|
Paleoclimatology |
is the study of changes in climatetaken on the scale of the entire history of Earth |
|
|
Forcings |
a.) external boundary conditions orinputs to a climate model b.)Main long-term climate forcings: -Solar: changesin the intensity of solar radiation reaching the Earth -Volcanic: eruptions addaerosols to the atmosphere that increase reflection of radiation over shortperiods of time, but also add CO2 to the atmosphere that increases greenhousewarming over long periods -Greenhouse forcing: addition of CO2 to atmospherecontributes to climate warming |
|
|
Ice Core |
1. a core sample that is typicallyremoved from an ice sheet, most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica,Greenland or from higher mountain glaciers elsewhere 2. Lower layers are olderthan upper layers of snow (and an ice core contains ice formed over a range ofyears) 3. The properties of the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climaterecord over the age range of the core, normally through isotopic analysis .Thisenables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history ofatmospheric composition |
|
|
Milankovitch Cyle |
theory describes the collectiveeffects of changes in the Earth's movements upon its climate; explains therepeating, cyclical changes from glacial to interglacial the tilting of theearth's axis affects it. |
|
|
Orbital Changes |
changes solar energy reachingEarth-> changes in global climate |
|
|
Glacial/Interglacial (Cycles) |
a. the cycles are caused byvariations in the Earth's orbit through time have changed the amount of solarradiation received by the Earth in each season b. Interglacial periods tend tohappen during times of more intense summer solar radiation in the NorthernHemisphere |
|
|
Precession |
the trend in the direction of theEarth's axis of rotation relative to the fixed stars, with a period of roughly26,000 years; is due to the tidal forces exerted by the Sun and the Moon on thesolid Earth, which has the shape of an oblate spheroid rather than a sphere TheSun and Moon contribute roughly equally to this effect |
|
|
Obliquity |
a deviation from a vertical orhorizontal line, plane, position, or direction. |
|
|
Albedo |
the proportion of the incident lightor radiation that is reflected by a surface, typically that of a planet ormoon. Like the snow that reflects the sunlight to prevent the surface of theearth from overheating. |
|
|
Photons |
elementary particles (one of the basicbuilding blocks) characterized by oscillating electrical and magnetic fieldsthat propagate through space. They behave like particles and waves. Makes upelectromagnetic radiations. |
|
|
Boltzmann's Law |
S(amount of energy emitted by blackbody)= K(constant)x T^4(temperature) Determines how much energy is coming fromthe sun |
|
|
Methane |
1. Driver of Climate Change 2. Alongwith CO2, nitrous oxide, Methane levels have reached levels that areunprecedented in the last 800,000 years 3. Green house gas |
|
|
Ozone |
an inorganic compound withthechemical formula O3. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stablethan the diatomic allotrope O2, breaking down in the lower atmosphere to normaldioxygen |
|
|
Thermo-haline circulation |
a part of the large-scale oceancirculation that is driven by global density gradientscreated by surface heatand freshwater fluxes. |
|
|
Enso |
the cycle of el niño and la niña |
|
|
Global Circulation Models |
a mathematical model of the generalcirculation of a planetary atmosphereor ocean and based on the Navier-Stokesequations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energysources (radiation, latent heat) |
|
|
Discretization |
the process of transferringcontinuous models and equations into discrete counterparts |
|
|
Chaotic |
Small differences in initialconditions (such as those due to rounding errors in numerical computation)yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems |
|
|
Non-linear systems |
system that does not satisfy thesuperposition principle, which means that the output is not directlyproportional to the input |
|
|
Control parameter |
The factors that are kept the same |
|
|
Periodic Doubling |
the system switches to a new behaviorwith twice the period of the original system. |
|
|
Poincare Section |
the goal of a Poincaré section is todetect some sort of structure in the attractor. |
|
|
Attractor |
set of physical properties towardwhich a system tends to evolve, regardless of the starting conditions of thesystem. |
|
|
Phase space |
a space in which all possible statesof a system are represented, with each possible state of the systemcorresponding to one unique point in the phase space |
|
|
Lyapunov Exponent |
a quantity that characterizes therate of separation of infinitesimally close trajectories |
|
|
Lorenz System |
a system of ordinary differentialequations (the Lorenz equations) first studied by Edward Lorenz. It is notablefor having chaotic solutions for certain parameter values and initialconditions. |
|
|
Bifurcation |
the splitting of a main body into twoparts. |
|
|
Tipping Point |
A tipping point is an example ofhysteresis in which the point at which an object is displaced from a state ofstable equilibrium into a new equilibrium state qualitatively dissimilar fromthe first. |
|
|
Metastable |
the extended time spent by anisolated system in a long lived configuration other than the system's state ofleast energy. During a metastable state of finite lifetime all state-describingparameters reach and hold stationary values. |
|
|
Speleotherm |
a secondary mineral deposit formed ina cave. Speleothems are typically formed in limestone or dolostone solutionalcaves |
|
|
δ18O |
a measure of the ratio of stableisotopes |
|
|
Isotopes |
re variants of a particular chemicalelement such that, while all isotopes of a given element have the same numberof protonsin each atom, they differ in neutron number. |
|
|
Medieval Warm Period |
a time of warm climatein the NorthAtlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events aroundthe world during that time, including inChina[1] and other countries, lastingfrom about AD 950 to 1250 |
|
|
Little Ice Age |
a period of cooling that occurredafter the Medieval Warm Period (Medieval Climate Optimum). |
|
|
Eccentricity |
a parameter associated with everyconic section. It can be thought of as a measure of how much the conic sectiondeviates from being circular |
|
|
What is the Carbon cycle? |
Cyclic movement of carbon indifferent chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to theenvironment., The process of converting carbon into organic matter,predominantly achieved through photosynthesis. The movement of carbon fromthe environment into living things and back into the environment. |
|
|
Why does the carbon cycle act as athermostat for Earth climate? |
The carbon cycle acts as a thermostatbecause it maintains Earths temperature and creates a thermal blanket. Thecarbon cycle is only possible on Earth due to plate tectonics.
•SelfRegulating system (negative feedback)
•As CO2 increases, temperatureincreases
•As temperature increases, rate of weathering increases
•Asweathering increases, Levels of CO2 decrease
•Weathering reaction important,more efficient at higher temperatures |
|
|
What is the faint sun problem? |
We hypothesize the sun is much largerand brighter now, so in early Earth when the sun was fainter, why wasn't theEarth frozen over? There are two hypotheses: The first is that there couldhave been a greenhouse effect that was substantially larger causing moreerosion and the release of CO2. The second suggests (the change in terms ofalbedo) there is more whiter stuff now that reflects the sunlight so that eventhough the sun burns hotter and brighter now, the Earth today is reflectingmore back. |
|
|
Ice record |
Looking at ice cores and the recordof them thru that. |
|
|
Temperature proxy |
Preserved physical characteristics ofthe past that stand in for direct measurements • Tree rings- was it hot and dryor cold and wet? |
|
|
Isotope |
atoms of the same element that havedifferent number of neutrons. (different atomic mass). Significant examples:Uranium, Hydrogen/Deuterium |
|
|
Deuterium |
A stable isotope of hydrogen thatcontains one proton and one neutron per atom. Abundant in Earth's oceans. |
|
|
Ice Age |
A period of long-term reduction inthe temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in thepresence of expansion of continental/polar ice sheets and alpine extremely coldtemperatures. |
|
|
Natural climate change |
variations in solar output,continental movement, atmosphere/ocean variability |
|
|
Eocene Optimum |
Earth's surface temperaturesgenerally rose from the late Paleocene through the Early Eocene (~59 - 50 Ma),reaching maximum Cenozoic temperatures during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum(EECO). Superimposed on this warming were a series of"hyperthermals". |
|
|
Carbon cycle |
The biogeochemical cycle by whichcarbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pesosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere andatmosphere of the Earth. |
|
|
Tectonic forcing |
location of landmasses affect oceancirculation and continental ice sheets. The configuration of continents isdetermined by plate tectonics. |
|
|
Volcanism |
the phenomenon of eruption of moltenrock (magma) onto the surface of the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon,where lava, pyroclastics and volcanic gases erupt through a break in thesurface called a vent. |
|
|
Pleistocene Ice Age |
most recent ice age, began about 2million years ago, only epoch of quarternary period, period of time northhemisphere was subjected to great ice age |
|
|
Interglacial |
a geological interval of warmerglobal average temperature lasting thousands of years that separatesconsecutive glacial periods within an ice age |
|
|
Holocene maximum |
a warm period during roughly theinterval 9,000 to 5,000 years B.P. (before present) |
|
|
Faint sun |
1. Sun has changes its luminosity overtime (amt radiation that goes out) 2. Star burns heavier, and heavier fuelsover time increase radiation 3/ Even tho the sun was about 30 percent dimmerthan it is now, temp on Earth has been more or less stable 4. It should havebeen so much colder because the sun was so much fainted due to the carbon cycle |
|
|
Albedo |
Fraction of solar radiation reachingearth that is reflected back into space. The proportion of the incident lightor radiation that is reflected by a surface, typically that of a planet ormoon. Like the snow that reflects the sunlight to prevent the surface of theearth from overheating. |
|
|
Organic carbon |
Amount of carbon bound in an organic compoundand is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality |
|
|
Carbonic acid |
Chemical compound with the formulaH2CO3. It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide inwater, because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 |
|
|
Calcium carbonate |
A chemical compound with the formulaCaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks in all parts of the world, andis the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, coal balls,pearls, and eggshells |
|
|
Weathering |
breaking down of rocks, soils, andminerals as well as artificial materials through contact with the Earth'satmosphere, biota, and waters. Weathering occurs in situ, or "with nomovement", and thus should not be confused with erosion |
|
|
Mineral resources |
elements, chemical compounds,minerals, or rocks concentrated in a form that can be extracted to obtain ausable commodity |
|
|
Sediments |
Loose materials such as rockfragments, mineral grains, and bits of shell that have been moved by wind,water, ice, or gravity |
|
|
Thermostat |
A device that regulates temperature |
|
|
Negative feedback |
GOOD, LESSENS GLOBAL WARMING. occurswhen the result of a process influences the operation of the process itself insuch a way as to reduce changes |
|
|
Positive feedback |
BAD, INCREASES GW a process in whichthe effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in themagnitude of the perturbation...very bad! |
|
|
Photosynthesis |
a process used by plants and otherorganisms to convert light energy, normally from the sun, into chemical energythat can be used to fuel the organisms' activities |
|
|
Snowball earth |
650 million years ago, whole surfaceof the earth was covered by snow. It was the 2nd of the last time when allcontinents together |
|
|
Cap carbonate |
layers of distinctively textured carbonaterocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequencesreflecting major glaciations in the geological record |
|
|
Oceanic Carbon Cycle |
Carbon dioxide from the atmospheredissolves in the surface waters of the ocean. Some of the carbon dioxide staysas dissolved gas, but much of it gets turned into other things. Photosynthesis by tiny marine plants (phytoplankton) in the sunlit surfacewaters turns the carbon into organic matter. Many organisms use carbon to makecalcium carbonate, a building material of shells and skeletons. Other chemicalprocesses create calcium carbonate in the water. The using up of carbon bybiological and chemical processes allows more carbon dioxide to enter the waterfrom the atmosphere |
|
|
Respiration |
a phrase used in combination with carbon storage tocalculate the amount of carbon (as CO2) flux occurring in the atmospherethrough the various processes that add and subtract atmospheric carbon. Theresult of this calculation is known as the carbon flux ratio |
