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220 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What does this picture represent? What is the middle part called? |
1. Drainage Basin 2. Drainage Divide |
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What is a discharge of a river? |
The amount of water flowing through a channel over a given time. |
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What is the discharge formula? |
Discharge (Q) = stream depth X stream width X stream velocity |
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A ____________ is a graph showing the change in the amount of discharge over time. |
Hydrograph |
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Describe this Basin-slope |
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The more complex the shape of the basin is = ? |
Water shows up at different times. |
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A simple shape of the basin = ? |
Water runoff of the basin flows in an orderly way. |
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Smaller subsidiary channels are called __________. |
tributaries |
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Tributes __________ out discharge over time. |
spread out |
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What type of drainage pattern is this? |
Dendritic |
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What type of drainage pattern is this? |
Radial |
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What type of drainage pattern is this? |
Structurally Controlled |
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How is Material Transported and Deposited? - Soluble ions are __________ in and carried by moving water. |
Dissolved |
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How is Material Transported and Deposited? - Fine particles can be __________ in suspension (floating) water. |
carried |
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How is Material Transported and Deposited? - ______ ______ can roll and bounce along. |
sand grains |
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How is Material Transported and Deposited? - _________ and ___________ mainly roll and slide during high lows. |
cobbles and boulders |
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How is Material Transported and Deposited? - Material moving on stream bed is called _____________. |
bed load |
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What processes erode material? |
turbulence |
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Describe turbulent flow: |
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At higher velocities or nearobstacles, flow becomesmore chaotic (turbulent),forming a swirl called an ________. |
eddy |
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__________= Change in elevation for ahorizontal distance |
Gradient |
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________ gradient= stream drops more for a given distance |
steeper |
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How is gradient expressed? |
as m/km or ft/mile, degrees or percent |
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How does a stream change downwards? |
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What is the gradient formula? |
Vertical change/ horizontal distance= gradient |
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How does velocity relate to sediment size and capacity? |
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Streams vary in discharge during the year due to ________, ___________ and __________. |
snowmelt, wet and dry seasons. |
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In what season is the discharge the greatest? |
Spring |
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How do streams change downstream? Most Steep to more gentle as it goes __________. |
Downstream |
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Streams tend to be more steep near their _______, such as hills and mountains. |
origin |
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Lowest level to which a stream can erode= |
base level |
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High above base level= |
more erosion |
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Closer to base level= |
less erosion |
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______ level is the ultimate base level. |
sea level |
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What type of stream? |
Braided |
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What type of stream? |
Low sinuosity = gentle curves |
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What type of stream? |
Meandering= very curved, high sinuosity |
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In a stream, describe the features along different parts of bends. |
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Describe how meanders form and move: (part 1) |
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Describe how meanders form and move: (part 2)
-How does it lead to an oxbow lake? |
1. Cut off meanders form
2. Then, it leads to isolated and curved lakes= oxbow lake. |
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How do channels form? |
Rainwater causes splash erosion as it hits the ground, and water flowing over the surface as overland flow causes subtle sheet erosion. Concentrated flow erodes or dissolves materials and creates a small channel, or a gully. |
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How do stream form? |
A stream does not start with a fully formed channel full of water, but instead it grows incrementally as surface becomes concentrated into channels. - it becomes channelized. Smaller channels joint others until a stream forms. |
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Landforms associated with the headwaters of mountain streams, including rapids and waterfalls. Mountain streams begin in bedrock-dominated areas with relatively high relief and high elevation. |
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How do mountain streams get their sediment? |
Erosion on the sides of the stream forms lateral erosions. They get it from landslides. |
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Describe the characteristic and settings of braided streams: |
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Describe the types of sediment that braided streams carry and deposit: (part 1) |
Deposit course sediment. |
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Describe the types of sediment that braided streams carry and deposit: (part 2) |
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Describe the types of sediment that braided streams carry and deposit: (part 3) |
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Why are stream processes investigated in laboratory tanks? |
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Describe the features that accompany low-gradient rivers, explaining how each forms: |
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What is this? |
Point Bar |
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What are the characteristics of meander scars? |
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What are the characteristics of meander scars and oxbow lakes on the floodplains of meandering rivers? |
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What is this? |
A levee |
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How do levees form? |
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What happens when a river or a small stream enters an ocean or a lake? |
It forms a delta |
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Describe the stratigraphy of delta sediments and the setting in which each type of sediment formed: |
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Rivers and small streams can also lead to a _______________. (1) |
distributary system -- Picture of the Lena River splitting |
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Rivers and small streams can also lead to a _______________. (2) |
Delta -- Picture of Nile River spreading out deposits sediment |
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What factors control deposition of sediment in a delta? |
discharge, wave erosion, river and ocean ice, vegetation, sediment load, and water chemistry. |
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Describe how construction of a dam affects a stream: |
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Describe how rivers can be old or young, using the Mississippi River as an example: |
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Describe how river systems respond to changes imposed by climate, tectonism, geology, and human engineering: |
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What is a fall line? |
Waterfalls at a boundary of hard and soft rock. |
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What is the effects that glaciers have on river systems? |
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How do river terraces form? |
Fluvial terraces are remnants of the former floodplain of a stream or river. They are formed by the downcutting of a river or stream channel into and the abandonment and lateral erosion of its former floodplain. |
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What conditions change Streams? (part 1) |
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What conditions change Streams? (part 2) |
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How does climate affect streams? |
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How do river terraces form? (Step 1) |
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How do river terraces form? (Step 2) |
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How do river terraces form? (Step 3) |
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What are the characteristics of a terrace? |
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How are entrenched meanders formed? (Step 1) |
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How are entrenched meanders formed? (Step 2) |
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How are entrenched meanders formed? (Step 3) |
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When is it NOT a called a flood? |
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___________ help keep flow in channel. |
Levees |
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When IS it called a flood? |
If it overflows channels and spills into flood plain. |
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__________ builds up when sediment is deposited during floods. |
Floodplains |
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Is this hydograph and example of a flood? |
NO |
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T/F Flooding can be a slow or rapid increase in dischargethat exceeds flood stage |
TRUE |
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Is this an example of a flood? |
YES Flooding can be a slow or rapid increase in discharge that exceeds flood stage |
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What are some causes of flooding? |
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Where does water occur on our planet/ where is resides? |
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Oceans are ____% of near-surface water (salty) |
96.5% |
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_______ are important for sources of water and transportation. |
Rivers |
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________ are fresh or salty. Most are freshwater but Saline or Brackish in dry climates. |
Lakes |
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____________= water is on surface. |
Swamps and wetlands |
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_________= 0.001% of Earth's water in atmosphere as clouds, rain and snow. |
Atmosphere |
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________= water is also in permafrost and ground ice in these areas. |
Glaciers |
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____________= water in cells and structure of plants. |
Biological water |
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What setting contains the most freshwater? |
Lakes |
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Most of Earth’s water probably originated during the formation of the___________________. |
planet or from comets and other icy celestial objects |
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What is the hydrologic (water) cycle? |
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When water __________, it leaves the salt behind, so the moisture in theatmosphere is fresh and rainfall is fresh |
evaporates |
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What "moves" water? |
Ocean currents move water ; Water can move between the surface and groundwater in rivers and lakes and many other settings |
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What are some ways we use freshwater in the US? |
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Much of the thermoelectric power usage is with _________. |
saltwater |
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Some water used in irrigation is returned to canals and rivers and some __________________. |
soaks into the ground |
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Volumes of water typically reported in ___________________. |
gallons, liters, or acre-feet |
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What is an acre foot equivalent to? |
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What is this an example of? |
por spaces |
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Most groundwater in________ between grains and clasts. |
pore spaces |
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Pore spaces are in ________ part and are generally unsaturated. |
Upper parts |
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Below are pore spaces that are ___________ water. |
Saturated |
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The top of the saturated ground water is called the __________. |
water table |
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_______ mean grains of sand, silt, and clay-sized particles, aswell as pebbles, cobbles, and boulders |
Clasts |
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Usually clasts of different sizes are present in __________. |
sediment |
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What is this an example of? |
Fractures |
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_________ can contain groundwater. |
Fractures |
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More fractures= more ________. |
Water |
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T/F Nearly all rocks contain some fractures, but some rocks aremore fractured than others |
TRUE |
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Fractures may be the only pathways for water in some rocks,like _________. |
granite |
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Water can enter fractures that are ________________. |
interconnected |
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More and wider fractures provide more space for ________. |
water |
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What is this an example of? |
Caveties |
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Some rocks,especially limestone, have_______. |
cavities |
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Some rocks, especially _________, have cavities |
limestone |
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Groundwater in caves is ____ the main way groundwater occurs in most regions |
NOT |
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How does groundwater accumulate? |
-Rain or snowmelt can evaporate or be captured by plants - Water can flow down the surface as runoff - Water can accumulate on the surface in wetlands and lakes
- Water can seep into the ground - Water can reach the water table and seep down into the saturated zone - Below the water table, groundwater can flow if the rocks are have interconnected spaces |
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____________= proportion of open space. |
porosity |
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High or Low porosity? |
High |
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High or Low porosity? |
Low |
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Describe this: |
• Well-rounded, well-sorted clasts do not fit tightly • Poorly sorted, angular clasts fit more tightly |
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____________: Pores Connected So Fluids Flow. It is a measure of the ability of a material to transmit a fluid. It is related to size and interconnectedness of the pore spaces |
Permeability |
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High or Low Permeability? |
High |
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High or Low Permeability? |
Low |
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Materials with Low porosity usually have __________. |
Low permeability |
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Describe the geometry of the water table beneath a hill and a valley: |
-Water table has a similar shape to land surface, but is more subdued -Groundwater flows down the slope of the water table -Shape of water table mostly independent of rock units, but rock types influence how fast groundwater flows, if at all |
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What factors controls the rate of groundwater flow? |
slope |
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How does slope control the rate of groundwater flow? |
Water moves faster if there is a steeper slope to the watertable compared to a more gentle slope, if we are comparingthe same kind of material (same permeability) |
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What is an aquifer? |
An aquifer is a large body of permeable, saturated material through whichground water can flow enough to yield significant volumes of water |
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In order for the aquifer to be really good, what does it need to be? |
Highly permeable |
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_________ is the most common type of aquifer. |
Unconfined aquifer |
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A __________ aquifer is separated from Earth’s surface by rocks with low permeability |
confined |
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____________ aquifer sits above the main water table |
Perched aquifer |
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_________ aquifer does not have to rise all the way to the surface. It has no implication about water quality or taste (some artesian wells are saltywater) |
Artesian aquifer |
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How does water move between the surface and the subsurface? |
- Precipitation, snowmelt, and surface water can soak into subsurface andbecome groundwater -Water table is generally below surface, providing unsaturated zone intowhich water can seep -Where water table intersects surface, water can flow out into spring, lake,or river |
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How are lakes and wetlands related to groundwater? |
-Perched above water table with outflow to subsurface -Where water table intersects the surface (setting for lakes) -Lake on bench (flat area) in topography -Lake on bottom of valley, where water table is flat -Wetlands can be at water table or perched above an impermeable zone |
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A ________ represents a place where groundwater flows out of the ground and onto surface. |
spring |
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How are springs formed? |
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A stream lower than water table: ________ water |
Gains |
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A stream higher thanwater table: _____ water |
Loses |
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How do we study Groundwater? |
Geologist and hydrologist explore groundwater by collecting surface and subsurface data to investigate the depth, amount, and setting or groundwater, the direction in which groundwater flows, and the quality of the water. |
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How do we study Groundwater? (Field Studies) |
• Study types of rock and sediment • Estimate of overall permeability • Abundance and orientation of fractures • Orientation of layers • Presence or absence of cavities • Characteristics of the material, such as clast size and degree of sorting |
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How do we study Groundwater? (Geophysical Surveys) |
• Gravity surveys to determine depth to bedrock• Seismic surveys to determine geometry of layers, units, and faults • Electrical surveys to determine location of water table and geometry of units |
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How do we study Groundwater? (Drilling) |
• Drilling used to describe the sequence of materials versus depth • Characteristics of the materials (clast size) Abundance and dip of fractures • Lowering special video cameras down the drill hole • Geophysical surveys done within a drill hole, such as how much radioactivity each layer givesoff |
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_________ = Marks where water table is atsame elevation; blue arrows show flowdirection. We visualize system to compare watertable to other features, such as farmswith wells that pump high volumes (thisis a different area) |
Contour Map |
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How is a counter map used for water-table elevations? |
Numbers showelevations ofthe watertable |
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T/F A contour map can also predict the direction of groundwater flow. |
TRUE |
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A ________________ forms because water cannot flow fast enough to replenish the amount of water that is withdrawn from the well |
Cone of depression |
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How can a cone of depression lead to problems? |
• As watertable drops, the aquifer compacts, causing subsidence of land surface • Fissures form along boundaries between more and less subsidence • Alongcoast, freshwater floats on saltwater, so overpumping can draw saltwater intobottom of coastal wells • Areas candrop meters to tens of meters in elevation • Subsidenceis detected with repeated surveying with conventional surveying equipment, GPS,and other satellite measurements • Oncecompaction occurs, the pore space cannot be regained if the water table isallowed to rise (lost permeability, porosity, and storage capacity of thereservoir) • Fissures related to subsidence can be tens of meters wide, kilometers long, and tens toover a hundred meters deep • Fissures provide easy access for contaminant into the groundwater without being filtered |
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How can a cone of depression cause a well to become polluted? |
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How does polluted and contaminated groundwater move? |
• Contaminationlargely moves with groundwater down the slope of the water table • Can benaturally filtered out with enough time: flows slowly and in contact withmaterial like sand • Notfiltered if flows rapidly through a rock, such as a limestone with opencavities • Importancefor considering the direction of groundwater flow when sighting the relativepositions of a water well and contamination sources, such as a septic tank • Ingeneral, put the well uphill of a septic tank, but be aware of what is fartherup the hill |
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Groundwater flow spreads out due to diffusion and mixing, forming a _____________. |
Contamination Plume |
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How do we track groundwater contamination? |
• Contamination spreads out due to diffusion and mixing, forming acontamination plume • Contour water table and concentration of contaminant to track plume • Drill wells to intercept plume, pump out and treat water • Dispose of contaminated water or treat it with activated charcoal or certain geologic materials |
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Where does organic material in petroleum come from? |
Reefs, Plants, and Microorganisms |
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Organic converted into ________ (thick substance with long chains of hydrocarbons) thento lighter oil by breaking up long chains |
kerogen |
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Ideal temperature to make oil is ___________ degrees. |
~60 to 120°C |
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Gas is favored by _______ temperatures. |
higher |
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_________ rock: where petroleum migrates; porous and permeable |
Reservoir |
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Describe how oil and gas moves through rocks: |
• Oil andgas lighter than water so float on groundwater and migrate up •Permeable rocksinclude well-sorted sandstone and fractured layers • Less permeable rocks, likeshale, can block flow or trap oil • To trap oil, there must be no pathway to surface or else get oil seep • If flowsinto unconsolidated sands, you get oil or tar sands |
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How do folded layers trap oil and gas? |
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How do salt domes trap oil and gas? (What is the role of an impermeable seal?) |
• Saltdeposited along continental margins and other settings in layers that getburied • Salt is weak geologic material and flows when subjected to forces • Flow heals fractures and makes impermeable, but salt is soluble |
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What are some other ways oil and gas can be trapped? |
•There aremany other ways to trap petroleum – need permeable rocks overlain or partlysurrounded by impermeable ones • Normalfault: juxtaposes layers against impermeable granite (not very fractured) • Thrust fault: folds form as layers pushed up bends (steps) in thrust faults;oil in anticline • Unconformity: must be impermeable unit on top • Lenses: all layers eventually end, such as from a facies change |
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Summarize where petroleum is located in the US: |
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Describe how shale gas and shale oil differ from conventional gas and oil: |
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_____________ oil and gas are associated with rocks that have sufficient permeability toallow oil and gas to flow out of the source rock and into a reservoir rock. |
Conventional |
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________ gas and oil, in contrast, occur in low-permeability rocks that are theoriginal source of the petroleum. Thus, the oil and gas remains trapped withinthis source rock, usually a shale. |
Shale |
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To extractshale oil and shale gas, ________ are aimed toward the shale layer andcurved so that the drill hole follows the layer. |
drill holes |
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Pressurizedfluids, mostly water and sand, are pumped into the well where they open upexisting fractures in the rocks, form new fractures, and separate the rocksalong bedding planes. All of these increase the __________ of the rock andallow the gas and oil to escape into the ________. |
permeability; drill hole |
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What are the four concerns with shale gas drilling? |
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____________= Chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing can contaminatefreshwater drinking water supplies |
Water contamination |
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Where are some places in the US that shale gas and shale oil occur? |
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How does coal form? |
•Needenvironment where plants grow and accumulate in large quantities, like a swamp • Must buryplant parts and not destroy them by oxidation • Burialcauses increased pressure that compresses materials and temperature that drivesoff more volatile materials • Burial andheating increases carbon content of coal so get more energy – maturation • Anthracitehas 92 to 98 percent carbon and occurs in rocks that have been moderatelymetamorphosed |
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_____ matter is altered by heat and pressure. |
Plant matter |
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Name the 5 degrees of metamorphism: (in order) |
1) Peat (lowest energycontent) 2) Lignite 3) Subbituminous 4) Bituminous 5) Anthracite (highestenergy content) |
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How is coal mined from strip mines and underground mines? |
• Mined by open pit if coal layer is close to surface • Strip off and save overburden (including soils) in a long strip, mine coal, and then reclaim land with overburden from next strip • Underground mining is more expensive and dangerous, so used for better coal varieties • Coal burned to convert water to steam and generate electricity |
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__________ coals are less deeply buried |
Younger |
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What is an advantage of coal mining? |
electricity |
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What is a disadvantage of coal mining? |
Methane caused explosions, cave-ins, and asphyxiation (from noxious gases). |
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What are the four important hydrocarbons? |
1. Coal-bed methane 2. Oil shale 3. Tar sand 4. Gas Hydrate |
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Coal beds release ___________. |
coal bed methane |
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Plateau and southern Appalachianare __________ producers of coal bed methane. |
Largest producers |
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________ occur in the western US and in Australia and Canada. It is accumulated as clay-rich sediment that trapped abundant organic material within small pore spaces. Most are formed in lakes, lagoons, and estuaries. |
Oil Shale |
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What is this and example of? |
Oil Shale |
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__________ consists of thick, heavy oil intermixed with sand, clay and other sediment. It forms when oil generated through normal processes is degraded by bacteria. |
Oil/ Tar Sand |
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What is gas hydrate? |
Icy mixture of water and gas (below sea floor or landsurface) |
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What is this an example of? |
Gas Hydrate |
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Methane is used as a ___________ gas. |
Greenhouse gas |
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What is this and why is this a potential hazard of gas hydrates? |
A methane tank= explosive |
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How is water used to generate electricity? |
By using hydroelectric dams |
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Describe the process of a hydroelectric dam: |
It captures water from rivers and streams and stores it in the reservoirs to generate electricity. |
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Where are hydroelectric dams usually stored? |
In reservoirs |
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How is electricity generated from tides and ocean currents? |
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Hydroelectric energy provides ___ of world’s electricity |
1/4 |
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Hydroelectric energy: Typically an ___________ source of electricity but has many environmental problems and displaces people |
Inexpensive |
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What is this an example of? |
A hydroelectric dam |
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What are advantages of hydroelectric dams? |
the amount of electricity being generated can be changed by turbines. |
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What are disadvantages of hydroelectric dams? |
Filling of the reservoir can destroy farmlands, houses, and cities. (Flooding) |
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With Geothermal energy, the temperature increased __________ so therefore, deeper water is hotter. |
downward |
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What is water heated by the Earth generally used for? |
To generate steam and turn turbines to generate electricity |
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Where is Geothermal Energy most favorable in? |
Volcanic activity and Tectonism |
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What is this? |
A geothermal powerplant |
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What is this? |
Geyser |
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Describe this processes of geothermal energy: |
•Water commonly kept under pressure until piped to turbine; when pressurereleased water flashes to steam • Warm to hot water also used for local space heating, electricity & heat pumps |
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What are some problems with geothermal energy? |
• Groundwater withdrawal • Toxic elements in some geothermal waters |
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_________ is one of fastest growing sources ofenergy; renewable but eyesore; many areas do not have enough wind |
Wind |
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_____________: collectsunlight to heat the space without using any moving parts; no downsides (thisis one of the authors’ houses) |
Passive solar |
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_____________: collectsunlight but use moving fluids and perhaps compressors to move and store heat |
Active solar |
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____________: generateelectricity directly from sunlight; great for remote places, but expensive andmay need to store electricity |
Photovoltaic panels |
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__________: electricityused to break water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, which can be a fuel |
Fuel cells |
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___________:various ways ofusing organic material to generate energy, such as methane gas from landfills |
Biomass |
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__________:type of alcoholproduced by fermenting corn, sugar cane, or some other plant material |
Ethanol |
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__________ energy= • Solar-thermal methods heatwater to generate electricity: • Photovoltaic cells havesemiconductors that absorblight and emit electrons |
Solar Energy |
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What are some problems with Solar Energy? |
• Use toxic chemicals inmanufacturing process • Uses lots of land andrequires vegetation removal • Requires lots of water • Electricity is more expensivethan conventionalgeneration methods, butshould drop over time |
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_____________ is the most successful renewableenergy source |
Wind Power |
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In 2030 wind power could provide ___% of U.S.energy. |
20% |
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What are some environmental problems with wind power? |
• Land acquisition • Unsightly • Wildlife affected: bird kill • Erosion from roads |
