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198 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the 7 characteristics of living organisms?
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Cellular Organization Ordered Complexity Sensitivity Growth, Development, and Reproduction Energy Utilization Homeostasis Evolutionary Adaption |
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What is the hierarchal organization of living organisms?
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Cellular level Organismal level Population level Ecosystem level Biosphere |
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What makes up the cellular level of the hierarchal organization of living organisms?
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Cell is the basic unit of life |
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What makes up the organismal level of the hierarchal organization of living organisms?
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Tissue, organ, organ system, organism
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What makes up the population level of the hierarchal organization of living organisms?
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Population, species, community
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What are the steps of the scientific process?
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Observation Hypothesis formation Prediction Experimentation Conclusion |
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What is deductive reasoning?
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Theory> Hypothesis> Observation> Confirmation |
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What is inductive reasoning?
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Observation> Pattern> Tentative Hypothesis> Theory |
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What is a hypothesis?
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A possible explanation for an observation |
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Why must a hypothesis be tested?
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To determine its validity |
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Why is a hypothesis tested in many different ways? |
To determined its validity, and to allow for predictions to be made |
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What is a iterative?
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A hypothesis can be changed and refined with new data |
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What are the unifying themes of biology?
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Cell Theory Molecular Basis of Inheritance Structure and Function Diversity of Life Arises by Evolution Evolutionary Conservation Cells are Information-Processing Systems Nonequilibrium State |
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What is cell theory?
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Cells are life's basic units All cells come from preexisting cells |
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What is the molecular basis of inheritance?
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Sequence of 4 nucleotides encode cells information Gene Genome Continuity of life depends on faithful copying of DNA into daughter cells |
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What is a gene?
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A discrete unit of information |
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What is a genome? |
An entire set of DNA instructions |
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What is structure and function?
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Knowing a function- look for that structure in other organisms |
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What is an example of structure and function?
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Red blood cells have no nucleus -Carry more hemoglobin >Bind more oxygen -Concave shape = increased surface area |
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What does it mean that "diversity of life arises by evolution"
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Diversity due to evolutionary change over time 3 Domains |
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What are the 3 domains of diversity of life that arise by evolution?
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Archaea: single celled- prokaryote Eukarya: single-celled or multicellular eukaryote |
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What are four types of Eukarya?
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Plantae, fungi, animalia, and protista |
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What is evolutionary conservation?
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Some characteristics preserved -use of DNA Conservation reflects that they have a fundamental role |
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What does it mean that cells are information-processing systems?
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-Control of gene expression leads to different cell/tissue types Cells process environmental information -Glucose levels, presence of hormones Cells in multicellular organisms must coordinate with each other |
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What is a nonequilibrium state?
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-Constantly exchange matter and energy with surroundings Constant supply of energy needed Self-organizing properties at different levels Emergent properties from collections of molecules, cells, and individuals |
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What evidence supports Darwin's discoveries?
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Molecular Evidence Vestigial Structure |
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What is homology?
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Same evolutionary origin but now differ in structure and function
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What is comparative anatomy?
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Vertebrate forelimbs all share the same basic array of bones
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What is analogy?
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Structures of different origin used for same purpose with no evolutionary link (butterfly and bird wings) |
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What is molecular evidence?
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Phylogenetic trees |
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What are phylogenetic trees?
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Based on tracing origin of particular nucleotide changes to reconstruct an evolutionary history |
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What are vestigial structures?
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A structure in an organism that has lost all or most of its original function in the course of evolution.
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What are atoms composed of?
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Neutrons Electrons |
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What are protons?
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What are neutrons? |
Neutral particles located in the nucleus |
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What are electrons?
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Negatively charged particles found in orbitals surrounding the nucleus |
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All matter is composed of?
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Atoms |
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How is atomic number determined?
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-Atoms are electrically neutral Atomic number = number of protons -Every atom of a particular element has the same number of protons |
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What is an element?
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Any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance by ordinary chemical means |
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What is atomic mass?
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Refers to amount of substance |
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What is atomic weight?
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Refers to force gravity exerts on sunstance |
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How is atomic mass determined? |
Sum of protons & neutrons is the atom's atomic mass |
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What are electrons?
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Neutral atoms have the same number of what?
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Electrons and protons |
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What are ions? |
Charged particles - unbalanced |
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What is a cation? |
More protons than electrons |
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What charge does a cation have?
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Positive |
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What is an anion? |
Fewer protons than electrons |
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What charge does an anion have? |
Negative |
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What are enegry levels?
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Rings in which electrons are found |
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Most atoms are stable with how many electrons on their outer shell?
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8 |
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How many electrons fill the inner most shell? |
2 |
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Positive oxidation numbers form what?
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Cations |
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Negative oxidation numbers form what?
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Anions |
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Oxidation numbers are based on what? |
Number of electrons in outer shell |
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What are isotopes?
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Atoms of a single element that possess different numbers of neutrons |
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What are radioactive isotopes?
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Unstable and emit radiation as the nucleus breaks up |
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What is considered the half like of the isotope? |
Time it takes one-half of the atoms in a sample to decay |
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What is iodine - 131 used for?
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Thyroid filters the iodide and a probe can be used to measure the gamma radiation |
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What is Colbolt - 60 used for?
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Effective at treating cancers Releases gamma rays |
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Where does the key to the chemical behavior of an atom lie?
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In the number and arrangement of its electrons in their orbitals
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What is the Bohr model?
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Electrons in discrete orbits |
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How does modern physics define orbitals? |
Area around a nucleus where an electron is most likely to be found |
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The position of an electron determines what?
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Their potential enegry
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Electrons farther from the nucleus have what?
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More energy |
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Isotopes in the environment can do what?
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Radioactive dating
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What is redox?
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During some chemical reactions, electrons can be transferred from one atom to another while still retaining the energy of their position in the atom |
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What is oxidation?
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Loss of an electron
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What is reduction?
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Gain of an electron |
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What are valence electrons?
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Number of electrons in outermost energy level? |
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Inert (nonreactive) elements have how many electrons in their outermost shell? |
8 |
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What is the octet rule? |
Atoms tend to establish completely full outer energy levels |
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What are the different types of bonds?
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Ionic Covalent |
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What is a chemical bond?
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Compounds are molecules containing more than one type of element Atoms are held together molecules or compounds by chemical bonds |
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What are ionic bonds?
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What are the characteristics of ionic bonds?
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Metal - non-metal Generally weak Gain or loss of electrons forms ions Electrical attraction of water molecules can disrupt forces holding ions together |
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What is a covalent bond?
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Forms when two atoms share 2 or more valence electrons |
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What are the characteristics of covalent bonds?
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Result in no net charge, satisfies octet rule, no unpaired electrons Strength of covalent bond depends on the number of shared electrons but are generally strong Many biological compounds are composed of more than 2 atoms - may share electrons with 2 or more atoms |
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What is electronegativity?
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Atoms affinity for electrons (how strongly atoms will attract electrons) |
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Differences in electronegativity dictate what?
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What are non-polar covalent bonds?
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Equal sharing of electrons |
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What are polar covalent bonds? |
Unequal sharing of electrons |
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What is the most electronegative element?
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Oxygen and Chlorine are two others |
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A chemical reaction involves what?
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The formation or breaking of chemical bonds |
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How do chemical reactions work?
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Atoms shift from one molecule to another without any change in number or identity of atoms |
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What are reactants in a chemical reaction? |
Original molecules |
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What are products in a chemical reaction?
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Molecules resulting from reaction |
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What are chemical reactions influenced by?
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Concentration of reactants & products Catalysts |
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Are many chemical reactions reversible? |
Yes :) |
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Life is inextricably tied to what?
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Water |
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The single most outstanding chemical property of what is its ability to what? |
-Weak chemical associations that form between the partially negative O atoms and the partially positive H atoms of two water molecules |
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What bonds are highly polar within a water molecule?
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Oxygen and hydrogen |
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Oxygen is more electronegative than what?
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Hydrogen |
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What kind of charges develop in a water molecule?
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Oxygen is partially negative Hydrogen is partially positive |
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What is a nonpolar covalent bond?
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No charges on atoms |
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What is a polar covalent bond?
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Bonding electrons shared unequally between two atoms Partial charges on atoms. |
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What is an ionic bond?
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Full charges on resulting ions |
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What is cohesion?
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Water molecules stick to other water molecules by hydrogen bonding |
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The attraction through cohesion produces what?
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Hydrogen bonds |
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The individual hydrogen bonds are what?
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Weak and transitory |
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Hydrogen bonds are responsible for what? |
Many of waters important physical properties |
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What is adhesion?
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Water molecules stick to other polar molecules by hydrogen bonding
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A large amount of energy is required to change what about water?
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The temperature because water has a high specific heat |
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The evaporation of water from a surface causes what? |
Cooling of that surface |
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What is hydrophilic?
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Water loving |
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What is hydrophobic? |
Water fearing |
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What is the pH of pure water?
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7 Considered neutral Neither acidic nor basic |
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What is pH? |
The negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration of solution |
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What is an acid?
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What happens as an acid gets stronger? |
More hydrogen ions get produced and the pH get lower
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What is a base? |
A substance that combines with H+ dissolved in water, & thus lowers the H+
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What are buffers?
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Substances that resists changes in pH |
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How to buffers act? |
Absorbing hydrogen ions when acid is added Overall effect of keeping [H+] relatively consistent |
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Why are biological buffers important?
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To stop things like respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, & metabolic alkalosis from happening |
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What do most biological buffers consist of? |
A pair of molecules, one acid and one base
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Carbon is considered what kind of molecules
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Carbon tha ho molecule |
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Organic chemistry is the study of what?
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Carbon compounds |
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Why are C atoms versatile building blocks?
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Because they have bonding properties and 4 stable covalent bonds |
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What is the simplest C molecule? |
-Combinations of C & H |
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What is the simplest HC molecule?
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Methane |
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What are the characteristics of methane?
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Non polar Not soluble in water Hydrophobic Stable Very little attraction between molecules A gas at room temp |
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How do hydrocarbons grow?
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Adding C-C bonds Straight line Branching Ring |
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What hydrocarbons grow in a straight line?
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Ethane & Hexane |
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What hydrocarbons grow by branching? |
Isohexane |
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What hydrocarbons grow in a ring? |
Cyclohexane (Like a cyclone, is a ring) |
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What are isomers?
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What are the types of isomers? |
Structural Geometric Stero |
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What are structural isomers?
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Molecules differ in structural arrangement of atoms |
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What are geometric isomers?
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Same covalent partnership |
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What are stero isomers?
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Molecules which are mirror images of each other -C bonded to 4 different atoms or groups ---Asymmetric -Left and right handed versions --"L" versions are biologically active |
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Structural differences in stero isomers create important functional significance such as?
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Amino acid alanine -L alanine used in proteins but not D (R)-alanine Medicine -L version active but not D(R)- version When the wrong version of the isomer is used it can result in tragedy |
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What caused "one of the biggest medical tragedies of modern times"?
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Prescribed to women in the 50's & 60's for morning sickness but stereoisomers caused severe birth defects |
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What are functional groups?
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-Gives organic molecules distinctive properties |
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The basic structure of male & female hormones are identical but
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Interact with different targets in the body |
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What are the 6 functional groups most important to chemistry of life?
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Carbonyl Carboxyl Amino Sulfhydryl Phosphate |
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What affects the reactivity of functional groups?
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Increase solubility in water |
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What is hydroxyl?
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Organic compounds with OH = alcohols, sugars Names typically end in -ol -ex. Ethanol & Glycerol Polar Forms H-bonds with water to help |
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What is carbonyl?
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-O double bonded to C If C=O at end of molecule = aldelhyde If C=O in the middle of molecule - ketone |
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What is carboxyl?
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C double bonded to O & single bonded to OH group Compounds with COOH = acids Loses H= easily - makes solutions acidic --Fatty Acids --Amino Acids |
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What is amino?
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-NH2 N attached to 2 H -Compounds with NH2 = amines --Amino acids NH2 acts as base -Ammonia picks up H+ from solution |
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What is sulfhydryl?
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S bonded to H -Compounds with SH = thiols -SH groups stabilize the structure of proteins Smells like rotten eggs and sewage |
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What is phosphate?
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-PO4 P bound to 4 O -Connects to C through an O -PO4 are anions with 2 negative charges -Function of PO4 is to transfer energy between organic molecules (ATP) Forms phospholipids and DNA |
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What is methyl?
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-Compounds become "methylated" -This affects shape & function of the molecule -Hydrophobic |
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What are macromolecules?
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Smaller organic molecules join together to form larger molecules |
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What are the four major classes of macromolecules? |
Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids |
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What are monomers?
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Repeated small units |
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What is dehydration synthesis? |
The process of joining two molecules, or compounds, together following the removal of water
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What is hydrolysis?
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The chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water |
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What are carbohydrates? (Besides my main food group) |
Composed of C, H, & O |
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What are the functions of Carbohydrates?
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Raw Materials Energy Storage Structural Materials |
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What is a monomer of carbohydrates? |
Ex. Sugars, starches, cellulose |
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How can you identify sugar molecules?
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Most names for sugar end in -ose |
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How are sugars classified? |
6C = Hexose (glucose) 5C = Pentose (ribose) 3C = Triose (glyceraldehyde) |
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Functional groups determine what?
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Example: If C=O is at the end of a chain of carbonyl its aldehyde but if its in the middle its a ketone |
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5C & 6C sugars form what?
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Rings in solution |
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Three types of sugar saccharides?
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Disaccharides Polysaccharides |
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What is a monosaccharide?
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Ex. Glucose |
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What is a disaccharide? |
Ex. Sucrose |
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What is a polysaccharide?
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Ex. Starch |
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What are the functions of a polysaccharide?
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-Starch (plants) -Glycogen (animals) --In liver & muscles Structure -Cellulose (plants) -Chitin (arthropods & fungi) |
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Digesting starch vs. cellulose
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Cellulose is hard to digest |
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Cellulose in the most what?
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Abundant compound on Earth |
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What are lipids composed of?
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Long hydrocarbon chain |
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What are the three types of lipids?
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Phospholipids Steroids |
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Do lipids form polymers? |
NOT a continuing chain |
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What is the structure of lipids?
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-Fatty acid = long HC "tail" with COOG group at "head" |
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Fat is also known as what?
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-3 fatty acids linked to glycerol -Ester linkage between OH & COOH |
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Are fats polar or nonpolar?
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Nonpolar |
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Are fats hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
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Hydrophobic |
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What are the functions of fats? |
-very rich -2x carbs Cushions organs Insulates body |
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How are saturated fats bonded?
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No C=C double bonds -Long, straight chain -Most animal fats -Solid at room temp -- Butter, coconut oil, etc. |
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How are unsaturated fats bonded?
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-Plant & fish fats -Vegetable oils -Liquid at room temp |
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What is the structure of phospholipids?
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-PO4 negatively charged -Other small molecules may also be attached --adenine (ATP) |
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Are phospholipids hydrophobic or philic?
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PO4 = hydrophilic head -dual "personality" |
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How do phospholipids react in water?
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Hydrophobic tails "hide" from H2O -Self-assemble into aggregates --micelle --liposome --early evolutionary stages of a cell |
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Where do we find phospholipids?
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Inside cell membranes |
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How do phospholipids react in the cell membrane?
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Form a bilayer Hydrophilic heads on outside Hydrophobic tails on inside form core Forms barrier between cell & external environment |
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What are steroids?
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4 fused C rings -different steroids created by attaching different functional groups to rings |
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What is the important cell component of cholesterol?
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Found in animal cell membranes Precursor of all other steroids -Including vertebrate sex hormones High levels in blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease |
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What are the functions of nucleic acids?
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Store & transmit hereditary information |
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What are some examples of nucleic acids?
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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acids) |
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What are the structures in nucleic acids? |
monomers = nucleotides |
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What are the 3 parts of nucleotides?
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Pentose sugar (5C) -Ribose in RNA -Deoxyribose in DNA PO4 group |
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What are the two types of nucleotides?
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2 types of nucleotides |
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What is the make up of purines?
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Adenine (A) Guanine (G) |
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What is the make up of pyrimidines? |
Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U) |
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What is the backbone of a nucleic polymer?
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Phosphodiester bond N bases hang off the sugar-phosphate backbone |
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How does a Phosphodiester bond work? |
Polymer grows in one direction |
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RNA is what kind of nucleotide chain?
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A single nucleotide chain |
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DNA is what kind of nucleotide chain? |
-N bases bond in pairs across chains -Spiraled into a double helix |
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Nucleotides bond between DNA strands to form what?
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Purine::Pyrimidine |
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What are the types of H bonds?
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G::C |
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What is the function of an information polymer?
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Stored information is passed from parent to offspring Stored information is also known as genetics |
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What are proteins?
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Most structurally & functionally diverse group of biomolecules
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What are the functions of proteins?
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Involved in almost everything: Enzymes Structure (keratin & collagen) Carriers & transport (membrane channels) Receptors & binding (defense) Contraction (actin & myosin) Signaling (hormones) Storage (bean seed proteins) |
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What is the structure of proteins?
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-20 different amino acids Polymer = polypeptide -Protein can be 1 or more polypeptide chains folded & bonded together -Large & complex molecules -Complex 3D shape |
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What is the structure of amino acids?
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Amino Group Carboxyl Group (acid) R Group (side chain) -Variable group -Confers unique chemical properties of the amino acid |
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What are the building proteins in a polypeptide chain?
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C-terminal = COOH end Repeated sequence (N-C-C) is the polypeptide backbone which grows in one direction |
