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146 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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When it comes to student studying behavior, which would Vygotsky say is the proper way to scaffold student behavior for students to better learn? |
Offer study strategies and review guidelines for the first test, and then gradually reduce these as students learn to study. |
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Two-year-old Ang thinks words are for talking about people’s feelings and needs. His vocabulary consists of many social formulas and pronouns. Ang's language is an example of: |
an expressive style. |
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Which cognitive process helps us notice that our mind is wandering and helps us try to refocus on the notes we are studying? |
central executive |
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Which of the following is a way to build schemas by trying to repeat chance motor behaviors over and over? |
circular reaction |
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Accommodation |
Piaget, Creating new schemes or adjusting to old ones after noticing our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely. - When Timmy dropped objects in different ways, he modified his dropping scheme to take account of the varied properties of objects. |
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Adaptation |
In Piaget's theory, this involves building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. - It consists of two complementary activities, assimilation, and accommodation. |
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Assimilation |
Piaget, During assimilation, we use our current schemes to interpret the external world. - For example, when Timmy dropped objects, he was assimilating them to his sensorimotor “dropping scheme.” |
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autobiographical memory |
Long-lasting recollections of personally meaningful one-time events from both the recent and the distant past. - Such as the day a sibling was born or a move to a new house
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automatic processes |
Cognitive activities that are so well-learned that they require no space in working memory and, therefore, permit an individual to focus on other information while performing them. - Consider the richness of your thinking while you automatically drive a car. |
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babbling |
Gradually after cooing, consonants are added, and around 6 months infants tend to speak with a repetition of consonant-vowel combinations. - With age, they increase this form of speech to long strings, such as “bababababa” or “nanananana,” in an effort to gain control over producing particular sounds. |
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central executive |
In information processing, the conscious, reflective part of our mental system that directs the flow of information - coordinating incoming information with information already in the system and selecting, applying, and monitoring strategies that facilitate memory storage, comprehension, reasoning, and problem-solving. |
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circular reaction |
In Piaget’s theory, a means of building schemes in which infants try to repeat a chance event caused by their own motor activity. - It involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby’s own motor activity. - as the infant tries to repeat the event, again and again, a sensorimotor response that first occurred by chance strengthens into a new scheme. |
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cooing |
Pleasant vowel-like noises made by infants beginning around 1- 2 months of age. - because of their pleasant “oo” quality. |
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core knowledge perspective |
A perspective that states that infants are born with a set of innate knowledge systems or core domains of thought - each of which permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefore supports early, rapid development of certain aspects of cognition. - these theorists also assume that an inherited foundation of linguistic knowledge enables swift language acquisition in early childhood |
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deferred imitation |
The ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present. - child mimicking their parents cooking dinner by playing with pots and pans and pretending to cook. |
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developmentally appropriate practice |
A set of standards devised by the U.S. National Association for the Education of Young Children, specifying program characteristics that serve young children’s developmental and individual needs, based on current research and consensus among experts. -Caitlin, Grace, and Timmy are fortunate to be in family childcare that meets these standards. |
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developmental quotient (DQ) |
A score on an infant intelligence test computed in the same manner as an IQ but labeled more conservatively because it does not tap the same dimensions of intelligence assessed in older children. - is a numerical indicator of a child’s growth to maturity across a range of psychosocial competencies. |
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displaced reference |
The realization that words can be used to cue mental images of things that are not physically present. - It greatly enhances toddlers’ capacity to learn about the world by communicating with others. - emerges around the first birthday. |
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executive function |
In information processing, the diverse cognitive operations and strategies that enable us to achieve our goals in cognitively challenging situations. - These include controlling attention by inhibiting impulses and irrelevant actions and by flexibly directing thought and behavior to suit the demands of a task; coordinating information in working memory; and planning. - the diverse cognitive operations and strategies that enable us to achieve our goals in cognitively challenging situations. |
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expressive style of language learning |
A style of early language learning in which toddlers use language mainly to talk about their own and others’ feelings and needs, with an initial vocabulary emphasizing social formulas and pronouns. - they produce many more social formulas and pronouns (“thank you,” “done,” “I want it”). |
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Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) |
A checklist for gathering information about the quality of children’s home lives through observation and parental interview. - the most widely used home environment measure during the first three years |
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infant-directed speech (IDS) |
A form of communication used by adults to speak to infants and toddlers, consisting of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts. - (“See the ball,” “The ball bounced!”) - From birth on, infants prefer IDS over other adult talk, and by 5 months they are more emotionally responsive - Deaf parents use a similar style of communication when signing to their deaf babies |
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infantile amnesia |
The inability of most older children and adults to retrieve events that happened before age 2 to 3. - One theory as to why this happens credits brain development, pointing to the hippocampus (located just under the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex), which plays a vital role in the formation of new memories. Though its overall structure is formed prenatally, the hippocampus continues to add new neurons well after birth. Integrating those neurons into existing neural circuits is believed to disrupt already stored early memories |
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intelligence quotient (IQ) |
A score that permits an individual’s performance on an intelligence test to be compared to the performances of other individuals of the same age. - which indicates the extent to which the raw score (number of items passed) deviates from the typical performance of same-age individuals. |
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intentional, or goal-directed, behavior |
A sequence of actions in which schemes are deliberately coordinated to solve a problem. - Consider Piaget’s famous object-hiding task, in which he shows the baby an attractive toy and then hides it behind his hand or under a cover. Infants of this substage can find the object by coordinating two schemes—“pushing” aside the obstacle and “grasping” the toy. - Piaget regarded these means-end action sequences as the foundation for all problem-solving. |
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joint attention |
A state in which the child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver, who often labels it. Contributes to early language development. - Infants and toddlers who frequently experience it sustain attention longer, comprehend more language, produce meaningful gestures and words earlier, and show faster vocabulary development |
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language acquisition device (LAD) |
In Chomsky’s theory, an innate system containing a universal grammar, or set of rules common to all languages - this enables children, no matter which language they hear, to understand and speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they pick up enough words. |
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long-term memory |
In information processing, the largest storage area in memory, containing our permanent knowledge base, which is unlimited. - In fact, we store so much in this memory that retrieval—getting information back from the system—can be problematic. - To aid retrieval, we apply strategies, just as we do in working memory. - Information in this memory is categorized by its contents, much like a digital library reference system that enables us to retrieve items by following the same network of associations used to store them in the first place. |
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mental representations |
In Piaget's sensorimotor stage this is stage 6 where internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate, including images and concepts are formed. - Most powerful two kinds; (1) images, or mental pictures of objects, people, and spaces; and (2) concepts, or categories in which similar objects or events are grouped together. |
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normal distribution |
The bell-shaped distribution that results when researchers measure individual differences in large samples. - Most scores cluster around the mean, or average, with progressively fewer falling toward the extremes. |
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object permanence |
Retrieving hidden objects reveals that infants have begun to master the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight. - Babies still make the A-not-B search error: If they reach several times for an object at a first hiding place (A), then see it moved to a second (B), they still search for it in the first hiding place (A) |
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organization |
In Piaget’s theory, the internal rearrangement and linking of schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system. - In information processing, a memory strategy that involves grouping related items together to improve recall. - Once children form new schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system. |
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overextension |
An early vocabulary error in which young children apply a word too broadly, to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate. - For example, Grace used “car” for buses, trains, trucks, and fire engines. These reflect toddlers' sensitivity to categories. - They apply a new word to a group of similar experiences: “car” to wheeled objects, “open” to opening a door, peeling fruit, and untying shoelaces. This suggests that children often overextend deliberately because they have difficulty recalling or have not acquired a suitable word. - And when a word is hard to pronounce, toddlers are likely to substitute a related one they can say. As vocabulary expands and pronunciation improves, overextensions gradually decline. |
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recall |
A type of memory that involves remembering something that is not present. - More challenging, but by the middle of the first year, infants are capable of this form of memory, as indicated by their ability to find hidden objects and engage in deferred imitation. |
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recognition |
A type of memory that involves noticing when a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced. - It is the simplest form of memory: All babies have to do is indicate (by kicking, pressing a lever, or looking) whether a new stimulus is identical or similar to a previous one. |
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referential style of language learning |
A style of early language learning in which toddlers use language mainly to name things, producing many words that refer to objects. - This is beneficial to young learners because it is a way that children expand their comprehension of words. |
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schemes |
In Piaget’s theory, specific psychological structures, or organized ways of making sense of experience, that change with age. - two processes, adaptation, and organization, account for changes among these. - At first, they are sensorimotor action patterns. |
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sensorimotor stage |
Primary circular reactions (1-4 months): Simple motor habits centered around the infant’s own body; limited anticipation of events Secondary circular reactions (4–8 months): Actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world; imitation of familiar behaviors Tertiary circular reactions (12–18 months): Exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways; imitation of novel behaviors; ability to search in several locations for a hidden object (accurate A–B search) - This stage spans the first two years of life. Piaget believed that infants and toddlers “think” with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment. Piaget believed that infants and toddlers “think” with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment because they cannot yet carry out many activities inside their heads. But by the end of toddlerhood, children can solve everyday practical problems and represent their experiences in speech, gesture, and play. |
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sensory register |
The part of the information-processing system in which sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly. - Look around you, and then close your eyes. An image of what you saw persists momentarily, but then it decays or disappears unless you use mental strategies to preserve it. |
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short-term memory store |
The part of the mind in which attended-to information is retained briefly so we can actively “work on” it to reach our goals. - One way of looking at the short-term store is in terms of its basic capacity, often referred to as short-term memory: how many pieces of information can be held at once for a few seconds. |
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standardization |
The practice of giving a newly constructed test to a large, representative sample and using the results as the standard for interpreting individual scores. - The standardization sample for the Bayley-III included 1,700 infants, toddlers, and young preschoolers, reflecting the U.S. population in SES and ethnic diversity. |
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telegraphic speech |
Toddlers’ two-word utterances that, like a telegram, focus on high-content words while omitting smaller, less important words. - Once toddlers produce 200 to 250 words, they start to combine two words: “Mommy shoe,” “go car,” “more cookie.” |
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underextension |
An early vocabulary error in which young children apply a word too narrowly, to a smaller number - At 16 months, Caitlin used “bear” only to refer to the worn and tattered bear she carried nearly constantly. |
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video deficit effect |
In toddlers, poorer performance on tasks after watching a video than after seeing a live demonstration. - has also been found for 2-year-olds’ deferred imitation, word learning, and means-end problem solving |
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violation-of-expectation method |
A method in which researchers show babies an expected event (one that is consistent with reality) and an unexpected event (a variation of the first event that violates reality). Heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is “surprised” by a deviation from physical reality and, therefore, is aware of that aspect of the physical world |
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working memory |
The number of items that can be briefly held in mind while also engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items—a “mental workspace” that we use to accomplish many activities in daily life. A contemporary view of the short-term memory store. |
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zone of proximal development |
In Vygotsky’s theory, a range of tasks too difficult for a child to handle alone but possible with the help of more skilled partners. - The adult picks a task that the child can master but that is challenging enough that the child cannot do it by herself. - As the adult guides and supports, the child joins in the interaction and picks up mental strategies. - As her competence increases, the adult steps back, permitting the child to take more responsibility for the task. - This form of teaching—known as scaffolding, which promotes learning at all ages |
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attachment |
The strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives, which leads us to feel pleasure when interacting with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress. - By the second half-year, infants have become attached to familiar people who have responded to their needs. |
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make-believe play |
Representation makes this possible - where children act out everyday and imaginary activities. - As the sensorimotor stage draws to a close, mental symbols have become major instruments of thinking. |
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violation-of-expectation method
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To discover what infants know about hidden objects and other aspects of physical reality, researchers often use this. - They may habituate babies to a physical event (expose them to the event until their looking declines) to familiarize them with a situation in which their knowledge will be tested. Or they may simply show babies an expected event (one that is consistent with reality) and an unexpected event (a variation of the first event that violates reality). - Heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is “surprised” by a deviation from physical reality and, therefore, is aware of that aspect of the physical world. |
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working memory
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But most researchers endorse a contemporary view of the short-term store, which offers a more meaningful indicator of its capacity - the number of items that can be briefly held in mind while also engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items. - can be thought of as a “mental workspace” that we use to accomplish many activities in daily life. |
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basic trust versus mistrust
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Erikson recognized that when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving, the psychological conflict of the first year is resolved on the positive side. - The trusting infant expects the world to be good and gratifying, so he feels confident about venturing out to explore it. - The mistrustful baby cannot count on the kindness and compassion of others, so she protects herself by withdrawing from people and things around her. |
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autonomy versus shame and doubt
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Erikson's view where this conflict of toddlerhood is resolved favorably when parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices. - A self-confident, secure 2-year-old has parents who do not criticize or attack him when he fails at new skills—using the toilet, eating with a spoon, or putting away toys. - Parents meet his assertions of independence with tolerance and understanding - if a child cannot capture the autonomy, they go through shame and doubt. |
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Basic emotions
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happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust - are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival. |
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social smile
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Between 6 and 10 weeks, the parent’s communication evokes a broad grin called the - These changes parallel the development of infant perceptual capacities—in particular, sensitivity to visual patterns, including the human face |
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stranger anxiety
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The most frequent expression of fear is to unfamiliar adults, a response called - Many infants and toddlers are quite wary of strangers, although the reaction does not always occur. - It depends on several factors: temperament (some babies are generally more fearful), past experiences with strangers, and the current situation. - When an unfamiliar adult picks up the infant in a new setting, this kind of anxiety is likely. - But if the adult sits still while the baby moves around and a parent is nearby, infants often show positive and curious behavior. -The stranger’s style of interaction—expressing warmth, holding out an attractive toy, playing a familiar game, and approaching slowly rather than abruptly—reduces the baby’s fear. |
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secure base
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Once wariness develops, infants use the familiar caregiver as a this. - the point from which to explore, venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional support. |
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social referencing
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beginning at 8 to 10 months, infants engage in this which is actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation - Many studies show that the caregiver’s emotional expression (happy, angry, or fearful) influences whether a 1-year-old will be wary of strangers, play with an unfamiliar toy, or cross the deep side of the visual cliff |
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self-conscious emotions
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Besides basic emotions, humans are capable of a second, higher-order set of feelings, including guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. - each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self. |
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Emotional self-regulation
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Refers to the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals - When you remind yourself that an anxiety-provoking event will be over soon, suppress your anger at a friend’s behavior, or decide not to see a scary horror film, you are engaging in this |
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temperament
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When we describe one person as cheerful and “upbeat,” another as active and energetic, and still others as calm, cautious, or prone to angry outbursts, we are referring to their - early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation and the psychological traits that make this up are believed to form the cornerstone of the adult personality. |
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easy child
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Thomas and Chess describe kids like this quickly establish regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences.
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difficult child
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Thomas and Chess describe kids like this as irregular in daily routines, slow to accept new experiences, and tend to react negatively and intensely.
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slow-to-warm-up child
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Thomas and Chess describe kids like this as being inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences.
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effortful control
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Individuals differ not just in their reactivity on each dimension but also in the self-regulatory dimension of temperament - this is the capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response - this is also associated with children’s resistance to stress |
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inhibited or shy, children
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Children whose temperament is such that they react negatively to and withdraw from novel stimuli.
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uninhibited, or sociable, children |
Children who display positive emotion to and approach novel stimuli. |
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goodness-of-fit model |
Thomas and Chess (1977) proposed this to explain how temperament and environment can together produce favorable outcomes. - involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child’s temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptive functioning. - If a child’s disposition interferes with learning or getting along with others, adults must gently but consistently counteract the child’s maladaptive style. |
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Attachment |
- Is the strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress. - By the second half-year, infants tend to favor people familiar people who have responded to their needs |
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ethological theory of attachment |
John Bowlby’s theory which recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival, is the most widely accepted view. - this perspective to the infant–caregiver bond, retained the psychoanalytic idea that quality of attachment to the caregiver has profound implications for the child’s feelings of security and capacity to form trusting relationships. |
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separation anxiety |
becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves. Like stranger anxiety (see page 186), separation anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. But in many cultures, separation anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months. |
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separation anxiety |
becoming upset when the baby’s trusted caregiver leaves. - Like stranger anxiety, this anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. - But in many cultures, this anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months. |
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internal working model |
According to Bowlby (1980), out of their experiences during these four phases, children construct an enduring affectionate tie to the caregiver that they can use as a secure base in the parents’ absence. This image serves as an |
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internal working model |
According to Bowlby (1980), out of their experiences during these four phases of attachment, children construct an enduring affectionate tie to the caregiver that they can use as a secure base in the parents’ absence. - This image serves as a set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during times of stress. - becomes a vital part of personality, serving as a guide for all future close relationships |
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Strange Situation |
A widely used laboratory procedure for assessing the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age - In designing it, Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues reasoned that securely attached infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore in an unfamiliar playroom. |
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Secure attachment |
These infants use the parent as a secure base. - When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. - When the parent returns, they convey clear pleasure—some expressing joy from a distance, others asking to be held until settling down to return to play—and crying is reduced immediately. |
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Insecure–avoidant attachment |
These infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present. - When she leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. - During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling. About 15 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. |
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Insecure–resistant attachment |
Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. - When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior (struggling when held, hitting and pushing). - Many continue to cry after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily. About 10 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. |
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Disorganized/disoriented attachment |
This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. - At reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors—for example, looking away while the parent is holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion. - Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed down or display odd, frozen postures. - About 15 percent of North American infants in middle-SES families show this pattern. |
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Attachment Q-Sort |
suitable for children between 1 and 5 years, depends on home observation - Either the parent or a highly trained observer sorts 90 behaviors—such as “Child greets mother with a big smile when she enters the room,” “If mother moves very far, child follows along,” and “Child uses mother’s facial expressions as a good source of information when something looks risky or threatening”—into nine categories ranging from “highly descriptive” to “not at all descriptive” of the child. Then a score, ranging from high to low in security, is computed. |
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Attachment Q-Sort |
suitable for children between 1 and 5 years, depends on home observation - Either the parent or a highly trained observer sorts 90 behaviors—such as “Child greets mother with a big smile when she enters the room,” “If mother moves very far, child follows along,” and “Child uses mother’s facial expressions as a good source of information when something looks risky or threatening”—into nine categories ranging from “highly descriptive” to “not at all descriptive” of the child. - Then a score, ranging from high to low in security, is computed. |
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sensitive caregiving |
responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully - Dozens of studies report that this is moderately related to attachment security in diverse cultures and SES groups - Mothers of securely attached babies also frequently refer to their infants’ mental states and motives |
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interactional synchrony |
In studies of Western babies, a special form of communication that separates the experiences of secure from insecure babies. - It is best described as a sensitively tuned “emotional dance,” in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion. - In addition, both partners match emotional states, especially the positive ones |
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self-recognition |
identification of the self as a physically unique being—is well under way. - Children point to themselves in photos and refer to themselves by name or with a personal pronoun (“I” or “me”) - Soon children identify themselves in images with less detail and fidelity than mirrors. - Around age 3 most recognize their own shadow |
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scale errors |
attempting to do things that their body size makes impossible. - or example, they will try to put on dolls’ clothes, sit in a doll-sized chair, or walk through a doorway too narrow for them to pass through |
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empathy |
Older toddlers who have experienced sensitive caregiving draw on their advancing capacity to distinguish what happens to oneself from what happens to others to express first signs of this - the ability to understand another’s emotional state and feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way. - For example, they communicate concern when others are distressed and may offer what they themselves find comforting—a hug, a reassuring comment, or a favorite doll or blanket |
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categorical self |
This is developed between 18 and 30 months - they classify themselves and others on the basis of age (“baby,” “boy,” or “man”), sex (“boy” or “girl”), physical characteristics (“big,” “strong”), and even goodness versus badness (“I a good girl.” “Tommy mean!”) and competencies (“Did it!” “I can’t”) |
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compliance |
As these capacities emerge between 12 and 18 months, toddlers first become capable of this - They show clear awareness of caregivers’ wishes and expectations and can obey simple requests and commands. - And as every parent knows, they can also decide to do just the opposite! |
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delay of gratification |
waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act. - Between ages 1½ and 4, children show an increasing capacity to wait before eating a treat, opening a present, or playing with a toy |
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academic programs |
In Preschool and kindergarten, these programs are where teachers structure children’s learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill.
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amygdala |
An inner brain structure that lays a central role in processing of novelty and emotional information. |
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amygdala |
An inner brain structure that plays a central role in processing of novelty and emotional information. - it is sensitive to facial emotional expressions, especially fear - It also enhances memory for emotionally salient events, thereby ensuring that information vital for survival—stimuli that signify danger or safety—will be retrieved on future occasions. - Throughout childhood and adolescence, connections between this structure and the prefrontal cortex, which governs regulation of emotion, form and myelinate |
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cardinality |
By age 3½ to 4, most children have mastered the meaning of numbers up to 10, count correctly, and grasp the vital principle of this - that the last number in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in a set - Mastery of this increases the efficiency of children’s counting. |
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centration |
They focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features. - In conservation of liquid, the child centers on the height of the water, failing to realize that changes in width compensate for changes in height. |
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cerebellum |
At the rear and base of the brain is this, a structure that aids in balance and control of body movement. - Fibers linking it to the cerebral cortex grow and myelinate from birth through the preschool years, contributing to dramatic gains in motor coordination: By the end of the preschool years, children can play hopscotch, throw and catch a ball with well-coordinated movements, and print letters of the alphabet. - Connections between it and cerebral cortex also support thinking. - Children with damage to this usually display both motor and cognitive deficits, including problems with memory, planning, and language |
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child-centered programs |
Preschool and kindergarten programs where teachers provide activities from which children select, and much learning takes place through play. |
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Conservation |
Piaget’s famous conservation tasks reveal a variety of deficiencies of preoperational thinking. |
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Conservation |
Piaget’s famous tasks reveal a variety of deficiencies of preoperational thinking. - refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes. |
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corpus callosum |
a large bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. - Production of synapses and myelination of this peak between 3 and 6 years, continuing at a slower pace through adolescence - this supports smooth coordination of movements on both sides of the body and integration of many aspects of thinking, including perception, attention, memory, language, and problem solving. - The more complex the task, the more essential is communication between the hemispheres. |
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dominant cerebral hemisphere |
Handedness reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain, this reflects the individual’s... - this carries out skilled motor actions - Other important abilities are generally located on the dominant side as well. For right-handed people—language is housed in the left hemisphere with hand control. For the left-handed 10 percent, language is occasionally located in the right hemisphere or, more often, shared between the hemispheres. - This indicates that the brains of left-handers tend to be less strongly lateralized than those of right-handers.
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dual representation |
viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol. - is the concept that the ability to use a symbolic object (such as a map or a model) arises from mentally representing the object in two different ways, as an actual object and as a symbol for the object. |
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egocentrism |
For Piaget, the most fundamental deficiency of preoperational thinking is this which is failure to distinguish others’ symbolic viewpoints from one’s own. - He believed that when children first mentally represent the world, they tend to focus on their own viewpoint and simply assume that others perceive, think, and feel the same way they do. |
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emergent literacy |
Children’s active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal experiences - Each day, children observe and participate in activities involving storybooks, calendars, lists, and signs. |
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episodic memory |
Think about the difference between your recall of listlike information and your memory for everyday experiences - In remembering everyday experiences, you recall information in context—linked to a particular time, place, or person. |
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expansions |
elaborating on children’s speech, increasing its complexity |
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fast-mapping |
Research shows that they can connect new words with their underlying concepts after only a brief encounter |
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fast-mapping |
Research shows that children can connect new words with their underlying concepts after only a brief encounter - Preschoolers can even do this with two or more new words encountered in the same situation - however, this does not imply that children immediately acquire adultlike word meanings. |
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growth hormone (GH) |
is necessary for development of almost all body tissues. - Without medical intervention, children who lack this hormone reach an average mature height of only 4 to 4½ feet. - When treated early with injections of this hormone, such children show catch-up growth and then grow at a normal rate, becoming much taller than they would have without treatment |
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guided participation |
To account for children’s diverse ways of learning through involvement with others, Barbara Rogoff (2003) suggests the term - a broader concept than scaffolding. It refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication. - Consequently, it allows for variations across situations and cultures. |
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hierarchical classification |
Preoperational children have difficulty with this, and this is the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences. - Piaget’s famous class inclusion problem, Children are shown 16 flowers, 4 of which are blue and 12 of which are red. Asked, “Are there more red flowers or flowers?” the preoperational child responds, “More red flowers,” failing to realize that both red and blue flowers are included in the category “flowers.”, demonstrates this limitation. - Preoperational children center on the overriding feature, red. They do not think reversibly by moving from the whole class (flowers) to the parts (red and blue) and back again.
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hippocampus |
located in the inner-brain, adjacent to the amygdala, which plays a vital role in memory and in images of space that help us find our way, undergoes rapid synapse formation and myelination in the second half of the first year, when recall memory and independent movement emerge. - Over the preschool and elementary school years, this structure and surrounding areas of the cerebral cortex continue to develop swiftly, establishing connections with one another and with the prefrontal cortex and lateralizing toward greater right-sided activation - These changes support the dramatic gains in memory and spatial understanding of early and middle childhood. |
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irreversibility |
The most important illogical feature of preoperational thought is its... - an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point. - After Priti spills her raisins, Sammy cannot reverse by thinking, “I know that Priti doesn’t have more raisins than I do. If we put them back in that little box, her raisins and my raisins would look just the same.”
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memory strategies |
But even preschoolers with good language skills recall poorly because they are not skilled at using these - deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering. |
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metacognition |
Children begin to construct a theory of mind, or coherent set of ideas about mental activities. - “thinking about thought” - As adults, we have a complex appreciation of our inner mental worlds, which we use to interpret our own and others’ behavior and to improve our performance on various tasks. |
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ordinality |
Between 14 and 16 months, toddlers display a beginning grasp of this - they order relationships between quantities—for example, that 3 is more than 2, and 2 is more than 1. - In the early preschool years, children attach verbal labels (lots, little, big, small) to amounts and sizes. Sometime in the third year, they begin to count. By the time children turn 3, most can count a row of about five objects, although they do not yet know exactly what the words mean. |
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overregularization |
When preschoolers acquire these markers, they sometimes overextend the rules to words that are exceptions |
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overregularization |
When preschoolers acquire these grammatical markers, they sometimes overextend the rules to words that are exceptions - “My toy car breaked” and “We each got two foots” are expressions that appear between ages 2 and 3 |
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Phonological awareness |
the ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language, as indicated by sensitivity to changes in sounds within words, to rhyming, and to incorrect pronunciation—is a strong predictor of emergent literacy knowledge and later reading and spelling achievement - When combined with sound–letter knowledge, it enables children to isolate speech segments and link them with their written symbols. |
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pituitary gland |
located at the base of the brain, which plays a crucial role by releasing two hormones that induce growth. - The first, growth hormone (GH), is necessary for development of almost all body tissues. - A second hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine, which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size. - Infants born with inadequate thyroxine must receive it at once, or they will be intellectually disabled. Once the most rapid period of brain development is complete, children with too little thyroxine grow at a below-average rate, but the central nervous system is no longer affected
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pragmatics |
Besides acquiring vocabulary and grammar, children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication. - This practical, social side of language is called ..., and preschoolers make considerable headway in mastering it. |
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pragmatics |
Besides acquiring vocabulary and grammar, children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication. - This practical, social side of language is called ..., and preschoolers make considerable headway in mastering it. |
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preoperational stage |
As children move from the sensorimotor to this stage, which spans the years 2 to 7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity. - Infants and toddlers’ mental representations are impressive, but in early childhood, these capacities blossom.
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private speech |
Because almost all studies support Vygotsky’s perspective, children’s self-directed speech is now called this instead of egocentric speech. - Research shows that children use more of it when tasks are appropriately challenging (neither too easy nor too hard), after they make errors, or when they are confused about how to proceed - With age, as Vygotsky predicted, this goes underground, changing into whispers and silent lip movements. Furthermore, children who freely use this during a challenging activity are more attentive and involved and show better task performance than their less talkative age-mates |
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Project Head Start |
Beginning in 1965, a typical Head Start center provides children with a year or two of preschool, along with nutritional and health services. - Parent involvement is central to the Head Start philosophy. Parents serve on policy councils, contribute to program planning, work directly with children in classrooms, attend special programs on parenting and child development, and receive services directed at their own emotional, social, and vocational needs. |
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recasts |
restructuring inaccurate speech into correct form - For example, if a child says, “I gotted new red shoes,” the parent might respond, “Yes, you got a pair of new red shoes.” |
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reticular formation |
a structure in the brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness, generates synapses and myelinates from infancy into the twenties - Neurons in this brain structure send out fibers to other brain regions. Many go to the prefrontal cortex, contributing to improvements in sustained, controlled attention.
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scaffolding |
adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child’s current level of performance. - When the child has little notion of how to proceed, the adult uses direct instruction, breaking the task into manageable units, suggesting strategies, and offering rationales for using them. |
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scripts |
Like adults, preschoolers remember familiar, repeated events—what you do when you go to preschool or have dinner - general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation. |
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semantic memory |
In remembering everyday experiences, you recall information in context—linked to a particular time, place, or person. - In remembering lists, you recall isolated pieces—information removed from the context in which it was first learned that has become part of your general knowledge base. |
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sociodramatic play |
the make-believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood - Sammy and his classmates can create and coordinate several roles in an elaborate plot. |
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thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) |
A second pituitary hormone prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine, which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size. - Infants born with inadequate thyroxine must receive it at once, or they will be intellectually disabled. - Once the most rapid period of brain development is complete, children with too little thyroxine grow at a below-average rate, but the central nervous system is no longer affected |
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In Bowlby's ethological theory of attachment, Preattachment phase
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(birth to 6 weeks). Built-in signals—grasping, smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult’s eyes—help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans, who comfort them. - Newborns prefer their own mother’s smell, voice, and face. But they are not yet attached to her since they do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult. |
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In Bowlby's ethological theory of attachment, “Attachment-in-the-making” phase
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(6 weeks to 6–8 months). During this phase, infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. - For example, at 4 months, Timmy smiled, laughed, and babbled more freely when interacting with his mother and quieted more quickly when she picked him up. - As infants learn that their own actions affect the behavior of those around them, they begin to develop a sense of trust—the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signaled—but they still do not protest when separated from her. |
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In Bowlby's ethological theory of attachment, “Clear-cut” attachment phase
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(6–8 months to 18 months– 2 years). Now attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident. - Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves. - Like stranger anxiety, separation anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. - But in many cultures, separation anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months, and besides protesting the parent’s departure, older infants and toddlers try hard to maintain her presence. - They approach, follow, and climb on her in preference to others. And they use the familiar caregiver as a secure base from which to explore. |
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In Bowlby's ethological theory of attachment, Formation of a reciprocal relationship phase
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(18 months to 2 years and on). By the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent’s coming and going and to predict her return. - As a result, separation protest declines, and now children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals. - For example, at age 2, Caitlin asked Carolyn and David to read her a story before leaving her with a babysitter. - The extra time with her parents, along with a better understanding of where they were going (“to have dinner with Uncle Sean”) and when they would be back (“right after you go to sleep”), helped Caitlin withstand her parents’ absence. |
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Schemes
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Accordingto Piaget, specific psychological structures—organized ways of making sense ofexperience called this and they change with age - Atfirst, they are sensorimotor action patterns. |
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Piaget and Education:Discovery learning.
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In a Piagetian classroom, children are encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment. - Instead of presenting ready-made knowledge verbally, teachers provide a rich variety of activities designed to promote exploration, including art, puzzles, table games, dress-up clothing, building blocks, books, measuring tools, natural science tasks, and musical instruments. |
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Piaget and Education: Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn.
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In a Piagetian classroom, teachers introduce activities that build on children’s current thinking, challenging their incorrect ways of viewing the world. - But they do not try to speed up development by imposing new skills before children indicate interest or readiness. |
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Piaget and Education: Acceptance of individual differences.
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Piaget’s theory assumes that all children go through the same sequence of development but at different rates. - Therefore, teachers must plan activities for individual children and small groups, not just for the whole class. - In addition, teachers evaluate educational progress in relation to each child’s previous development, rather than on the basis of attaining normative standards. |
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Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education
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This kind of classroom goes beyond independent discovery to promote assisted discovery. - Teachers guide children’s learning, tailoring their interventions to each child’s zone of proximal development. - Assisted discovery is aided by peer collaboration, as children of varying abilities work in groups, teaching and helping one another. |
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Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment 1) Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks) |
Built-in signals—grasping, smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult’s eyes—help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans, who comfort them. Newborns prefer their own mother’s smell, voice, and face. But they are not yet attached to her, since they do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult. |
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Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment 2) “Attachment-in-the-making” phase (6 weeks to 6–8 months) |
During this phase, infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. For example, at 4 months, Timmy smiled, laughed, and babbled more freely when interacting with his mother and quieted more quickly when she picked him up. As infants learn that their own actions affect the behavior of those around them, they begin to develop a sense of trust—the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signaled—but they still do not protest when separated from her. |
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Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment 3) “Clear-cut” attachment phase (6–8 months to 18 months– 2 years) |
Now attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident. Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves. Like stranger anxiety (see page 186), separation anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. But in many cultures, separation anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months. Besides protesting the parent’s departure, older infants and toddlers try hard to maintain her presence. They approach, follow, and climb on her in preference to others. And they use the familiar caregiver as a secure base from which to explore. |
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4) Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on). |
By the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent’s coming and going and to predict her return. As a result, separation protest declines. Now children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals. For example, at age 2, Caitlin asked Carolyn and David to read her a story before leaving her with a babysitter. The extra time with her parents, along with a better understanding of where they were going (“to have dinner with Uncle Sean”) and when they would be back (“right after you go to sleep”), helped Caitlin withstand her parents’ absence. |
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Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment 1) Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks). |
Built-in signals—grasping, smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult’s eyes—help g newborn babies into close contact with other humans, who comfort them. Newborns prefer their own mother’s smell, voice, and face. But they are not yet attached to her, since they do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult. |
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Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment 4) Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on |
By the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent’s coming and going and to predict her return. As a result, separation protest declines. Now children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals. For example, at age 2, Caitlin asked Carolyn and David to read her a story before leaving her with a babysitter. The extra time with her parents, along with a better understanding of where they were going (“to have dinner with Uncle Sean”) and when they would be back (“right after you go to sleep”), helped Caitlin withstand her parents’ absence. |
