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105 Cards in this Set
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Wild Type |
Traits most commonly found in nature |
Not necessarily the dominant trait |
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True-breeding |
When self-fertilization produces only offspring identical to parents |
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Hybrids |
Offspring of 2 different true-breeding varieties |
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Cross fertilization/hybridization/cross |
Fertilization of one plant by pollen from another plant (can be easily controlled) |
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Monohybrid cross |
Cross between parent plants that differ in one characteristic |
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What are Mendel’s four hypotheses? |
1. there are alternative forms of genes (units that determine her edible traits) now called alleles (alternative form of genes) 2. For each characteristic, each organism has two genes; one from each parent 3. Gametes (egg and sperm) carry only one allele for each inherited characteristic because allele pairs separate in the production of gametes (meiosis) 4. Alleles can be dominant or recessive |
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What is a punnett square used for? |
Tool for predicting results of the genetic cross |
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Phenotype |
Organism’s physical traits |
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Genotype |
Organism’s genetic make up |
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Mendels principle of segregation |
Pairs of alleles segregate (Separates during gamete formation, the fusion of gametes at fertilization creates allele pairs again) |
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Loci (locus = singular) |
Locations of specific genes on a chromosome |
Homologous chromosomes have genes at loci and alleles of a gene at same locus |
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What are the two hypotheses for dihybrid crosses? |
1. dependent assortment 2. Independent assortment – each pair of alleles segregate independently of the other parents during gamete formation, inheritance of one characteristic has no effect on inheritance of others. |
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Test cross |
Mating between individual of unknown genotype (P _) and homozygous recessive individual |
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Family pedigree |
Family tree showing occurrence of genes in family |
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Autosomes |
Chromosomes other than sex chromosomes (X and Y) |
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Inbreeding |
Mating of close relatives, increases chances of offspring being homozygous for harmful recessive traits |
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Incomplete dominance |
When phenotype of heterozygote is intermediate between the phenotypes of homozygotes |
Pink flower |
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Codominant |
Expression of both alleles |
Ex. ABO blood type |
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Pleiotropy |
Impact of single gene on more than one characteristic |
EX. Sickle cell disease |
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Polygenic inheritance |
Additive effects of two or more genes on single phenotype |
EX. Skin color |
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Chromosomal theory of inheritance |
1. Genes are located on chromosomes 2. Behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization accounts for inheritance patterns |
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What do sex chromosomes do? |
• Influence inheritance of certain traits • Sex chromosomes designated X and Y (determined individual sex) • (Egg = X chromosome/sperm = X or Y) • 1 gene on Y chromosome plays crucial role of development of testes (SRY) |
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Sex linked genes |
Genes located on sex chromosomes |
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What is the size of the Y chromosome in comparison to the X chromosome? |
Why chromosome is approximately 1/3 of the size of X chromosomes and has only 1/100 the number of genes carried by X chromosomes |
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How did researchers confirm the Lemba tribe descended from ancient Jews? |
Researchers use comparisons of Y DNA to confirm they were actually descendants |
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Are bones considered organs? |
They are considered organs because they are made up of multiple issues: Osseous tissue, nervous tissue, cartilage, epithelial tissue (lining blood vessels), fibrous connective tissue lining cavities |
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Functions of bones? |
Support – framework that supports body and cradle soft organs Protection – provide protective case for the brain, spinal cord, vital organs Movement – provides levers for muscles Mineral storage – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphate Blood cell formation - he hematopoiesis occurs within the red marrow Energy storage – yellow marrow |
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Does skeletal cartilage contain blood vessels are nerves? |
Skeletal cartilage does not contain blood vessels or nerves |
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What does articular cartilage do? |
Covers the ends of most bones |
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What does costal cartilage do? |
Connects the ribs to the sternum |
Costal = ribs |
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Where can respiratory cartilage be found? And what does it do? |
Makes up the larynx and epiglottis Reinforces air passages |
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What type of cartilage makes up the external ear? |
Elastic cartilage |
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What does hyaline cartilage do? |
Provide support, flexibility, and resilience; most abundant skeletal cartilage |
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What does elastic cartilage do? |
Makes up the external ear and the epiglottis (flat preventing food from entering larynx and lungs); highly bendable |
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What does fibrocartilage do? |
Resist strong compression and tension (pulling); contains collagen fibers; found in menisci (pad like cartilage of knee) and in intervertebral discs |
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How does cartilage grow? |
Appositional growth – growth from the outside – chondroblasts and the perichondrium secrete matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage Interstitial growth – growth from the inside – lacunae-bound chondrocytes inside the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within |
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How many bones to human body have? |
206 named bones |
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How many bones are part of the axial skeleton and what does the axial skeleton include? |
80 named bones Bones of the skull, vertebral column, rib cage |
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What is the appendicular skeleton and how many bones it made of? |
Bones of the upper and lower limbs, pectoral (shoulder) girdle, pelvic (hip) girdle 126 named bones |
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What are the classifications of bones shapes? |
Long bones– Longer than they are wide (all limb bones except patella) wrist and ankle bones are long Short bones– Cube shaped bones of the wrist and ankle Sesamoid bones– Short bones that form within tendons (EX. Patella) Flat bones– Thin, flattened and a bit curved (EX. Sternum, ribs, scapula, most skull bones) Irregular bones– Bones with complicated shapes that do not fit into other categories (EX. Vertebrae and hip bones) |
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What are the two types of bone textures? |
Compact bone - dense outer layer Spongy bone (cancellous bone) - honeycomb of trabeculae = small, needle like or flat place is filled with bone marrow |
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What is the diaphysis? |
tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones |
composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity (marrow cavity) yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity |
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What is the epiphyses? |
Expanded ends of long bones |
Exterior is compact bone Interior is spongy bone joint surface is covered with hyaline cartilage |
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What is the epiphyseal line (metaphysis)? |
separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses allows for growth |
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Periosteum |
double layered protective membrane |
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What are the layers of the periosteum? |
outer fibrous layer is dense regular CT inner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts |
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Nutrient foramina? |
allows for nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels to supply the bone |
hole in compact bone |
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Sharpey's fibers |
collagen fibers running from periosteum into bone matrix |
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Endosteum |
delicate membrane covering all internal surfaces of bone covers trabeculae of spongy bone and canals of compact bone contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts |
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Describe the structure of short, irregular, and flat bones.
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Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside with endosteum-covered spongy bone on the inside Have no diaphysis or epiphyses Contain bone marrow between the trabeculae; but no marrow cavity |
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What is the Haversian System? |
Structural unit of compact bone |
aka Osteon system |
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Osteon |
central canal and all of the concentric circles (lamella) surrounding it |
Part of Haversian/Osteon system |
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Lamella |
weight-bearing, column like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagen fibers and mineral crystals; each lamella runs in opposite direction of adjacent lamella |
Part of Haversian/Osteon system One goes clockwise and next goes counter |
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Haversian or central canal |
central channel containing blood vessels and nerves (Bones) |
Part of Haversian/Osteon system |
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Volkmann's Canals |
channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to the Haversian canal |
aka perforating canals |
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Osteocytes |
mature bone cells that reside in lacunae (small cavities in bone that contains osteocytes) |
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Canaliculi |
hair-like canals that connect lacunae to each other (where gap junctions form) and the central canal |
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What are the organic components of bone? |
Osteoblasts Osteocytes Osteoclasts Ostoid |
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Osteoblasts |
bone-forming cells "BUILDING" |
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Osteocytes |
mature bone cells "RETIRED" |
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Osteoclasts |
large cells that resorb (break down) bone matrix |
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Osteoid |
organic part of bone matrix composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen |
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What are the inorganic components of bone |
Mineral salts mainly calcium phosphates (as tiny crystals) -in and around collagen fibers in extracellular matrix Responsible for bone hardness and its resistance to compression; tiny salts |
hydroxyapatites |
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What is osteogenesis |
process of bone tissue formation |
aka ossification |
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What does osteogenesis/ossification lead to? |
Formation of the bony skeleton in embryos Bone growth until early adulthood Bone thickness Remodeling Repair |
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Intramembranous ossification |
Bone develops from a fibrous membrane without first being cartilage Forming membrane bone (most of the flat bones of the skull and clavicles) |
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Endochondral ossification |
Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage Forms endochondrial bone; grow through adolescence via epiphyseal plate |
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Bone remodeling |
Bone deposition (growth) and bone resorption (removal) |
In adult skeleton both occurs at periosteal and the endosteal surfaces |
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Bone deposition |
occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed; requires a diet rich in protein, vitamins (C, D, & A), calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese |
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Bone resorption |
Osteoclasts; resorption bays - grooves formed by osteoclasts as they break down bone matrix Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix Acids that connect calcium salts into Ca2+ and PO43- |
Dissolved matrix and dead osteoblasts are phagocytksed by osteoclasts |
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What is calcium necessary for? |
Transmission of nerve impulses Muscle contraction Blood coagulation Secretion by glands and nerve cells Cell division |
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What are the 2 control loops regulating bone remodeling? |
Hormonal mechanism maintains calcium homeostasis in the blood Mechanical and gravitational graces acting on the skeleton (stress will thicken) |
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Result of INCREASED Ca2+. |
Trigger thyroid to release calcitonin (stimulates calcium salt deposit in bone) Calcitonin activates osteoblasts |
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Result of DECREASED Ca2+. |
Signal the parathyroid glands to release PTH (signals osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the blood) |
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Wolff's Law |
bone grows or remodels in response to the groves or demands placed upon it |
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Functions of muscle tissue |
Movement - (skeletal) moves body by moving the bones, (smooth) squeezed fluids and other substances through hollow organs Maintenance of posture - enables the body to remain sitting or standing Joint stabilization Heat generation - muscle contractions produce heat; helps maintain normal body temperature |
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Functional features of muscles |
Contractility - long cells shorten and generate pulling force Excitability - electrical nerve impulse stimulates the muscle cell to contract Extensibility - can be stretched back to its original length by contraction of an opposing muscle Elasticity - can recoil after being stretched |
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What are the 2 types of myofilaments that generate contractile force? |
Actin - protein that makes of thin filaments Myosin - protein that makes of thick filaments |
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Sarcolemma |
plasma membrane of muscle |
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Sarcoplasm |
cytoplasm of muscle |
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Sarcoplasmic reticulum |
endoplasmic reticulum of muscle |
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What is a muscle made up of? (basic features) |
connective tissue (binds a skeletal muscle and its fibers together), blood vessels, nerves |
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Fibers (muscle) |
cells of skeletal and smooth muscles |
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Epimysium |
dense irregular CT surrounding the entire muscle |
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Perimysium |
surrounds each fascicle (group of muscle fibers) |
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Endomysium |
a fine sheath of CT wrapping each muscle cell |
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How is each skeletal muscle supplied? |
1 nerve *neuromuscular junction - interface between nerve and muscle fiber = signals he muscle to contract 1 artery 1+ veins |
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Origin |
less movable attachment |
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Insertion |
more movable attachment |
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How to muscles attach to origins and insertions? |
Connective tissue |
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Fleshy attachments |
CT fibers are short
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Indirect attachments |
CT forms a tendon |
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Describe a skeletal muscle |
Fibers are long and cylindrical Diameter = 10-100 um Length = several cm to dozens of cm Formed by fusion of embryonic cells Cells are multinucleate Nuclei are peripherally located |
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Sarcomeres |
Basic unit of contraction of skeletal muscle |
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Z disc (Z line) |
boundaries of each sarcomere |
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Location on sarcomere: thin (actin) filaments |
extend from Z disc toward the center of the sarcomere |
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Location on sarcomere: thick (myosin) filaments |
located in the center of the sarcomere |
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Sliding filament theory |
Myosin heads attach to actin in the thin filaments Then pivot to pull thin filaments inward toward the center of the sarcomere |
thin filaments slide over thick filaments create force within sarcomere |
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Describe cardiac muscle tissue |
Exclusive to heart wall Forms a thick layer (myocardium) Striated Contracts by sliding filament mechanism Single cells (not fused like skeletal) Cells are branched Each cell contains one or two centrally-located nuclei |
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Intercalated discs |
Complex junctions that join cardiac muscle cells together Forms cellular networks 3 TYPES OF CELL JUNCTIONS Desmosomes Fasciae adherans (long desmosome-like junctions) Gap junction |
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Where is smooth muscle located? |
Walls of circulatory vessels Respiratory tubes Digestive tubes Urinary organs Reproductive organs Inside the eye |
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Describe smooth muscle tissue |
Cells are spindle shaped -centrally located nucleus -separated by endomysium Grouped into sheets in walls of hollow organs Non-striated (no sarcomeres) Thin and thick filaments present Caveolae - tiny infoldings of the sarcolemma (help spread electrical signal) |
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What are the different layers of smooth muscle? |
Longitudinal layer - muscle fibers fun parallel to organ's long axis Circular layer - muscle fibers run around circumference of the organ |
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Peristalsis |
worm-like contraction |
Both longitudinal layer and circular layer participate in this Smooth muscle |
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Is the contraction of smooth muscle slow or fast? |
Slow and sustained Takes 30x longer to contract than skeletal muscle Maintains contractile force for long time (not fatigue) |
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