Economic Botany: Cell Parts, Biomolecules, Mitosis, Meiosis

Front 1

chemical bonds

Back 1

make molecules and compounds, number of bonds possible is determined by number of valence electrons

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covalent bond

Back 2

two atoms share electrons

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polar bonds

Back 3

electrons shared unequally

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nonpolar

Back 4

electrons shared equally

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OH
CO
COOH
NH2
SH
PO4

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hydroxyl
carbonyl
carboxyl
amino
sulfhydryl
phosphate

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OH

Back 6

Hydroxyl
/polar group
/water soluble
/called alcohols
/ie. ethanol

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CO

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Carbonyl
/carbon atom double bonded to oxygen
/water soluble
/in sugars

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COOH

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Carboxyl
/oxygen double bonded to carbon double bonded to hydroxide
/water soluble
/acidic properties

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NH2

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Amino
/polar
/water soluble
/weak base

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SH

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Sulfhydryl
/stabilizes proteins via disulfide bridges
/thiols

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Characteristics of water

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/solvent
/high surface tension (cohesion)
/solid, liquid, gas
/expands when freezes

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facilitated diffusion

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ie. ion channel

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carbs

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/most abundant organic compound in nature
/sugar and starch with C,H,O ratio of 1:2:1
/ie. glucose
/

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starch

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/main carb reserve of plants (branched, unbranched, coiled)
/major carb source for animals
/potatoes, wheat, rice
/alpha 1,4 bonds between glucose
/(C6H10O5)n

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cellulose

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/ (C6H10O5)n
/3000 to 10000 unbranched, linear, main structural polymer, microfbrils
/Cotton almost all cellulose also found in plant cell walls

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chitin

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/fungal cell walls and insect exoskeltons
/polymers of nitrogenous glucose

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lipids

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long chain hydrocarbons - oxygen on one end
don't mix well with water
high energy density
waxes, energy storage in seeds,
/fatty or oily substances that are mostly insoluble in water
/Fats are solid at room temperature(compact, animals)
/Oil are liquid at room temperature(seeds, compact vs. starch)
/Typically store twice as much energy as carbohydrates(higher portion of carbon – hydrogen bonds)
/Most consist of chain with 16-18 carbon atoms
/Saturated- no double bonds, no kinks, tightly packed
/Unsaturated- double bonds from carbon to carbon

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Phospholipids

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/constructed like fats but one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate group
/phospholipid bilayer makes up cell membrane
phosphate heads polar & water soluble, lipid tails not

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IKI

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stains starch

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Breakdown of cellulose

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achieved in animals by fungi and termites

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The "Big 4" polymers

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/carbs
/lipids
/proteins
/nucleic acids

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Unsaturated

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contains double bonds
kinks - takes more space
liquid at room temp

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trans-fat

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trans rotation around C double bond

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components of phospholipid

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/nonpolar tail
/polar head
//amphiphatic molecule
//makes up bilayers
//forms mycelle in water
//selectively permeable

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steroids

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4-C ring + lipid

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cholesterol

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/steroid
/makes membranes stiffer
/plants have sigmasterol

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waxes

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/lipids with long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols
/waterproof
/cuticle
/wards off fungus
/water-loss prevention

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proteins

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regulate chemical reactions in cells,
usually very large
one or more polypeptide chains

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polypeptide

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/chains of amino acids
/Each amino acid has two functional groups:
//1. Amino group(NH2)
//2. Carboxyl group(COOH)

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9 essential amino acids that humans cannot produce:

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Lysine, tryptophan, thereonine, methiomine, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, valine, and isoleucine.
/Beans and rice = good

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protein structure

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/Primary: aa seq
/Secondary: coiling
/Tertiary: interactions of R groups
/Quaternary: several polypeptides joined together

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enzymes

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/mostly large, complex proteins that function as organic catalysts under specific conditions.
/work by lowering energy of activation temporarily bonds w/ potentially reactive molecules at a surface site

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cells discovered in...

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1665 by robert hooke

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cell theory

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/developed in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann
/all organisms are composed of cells
/chemical rxns take place within cells
/contain hereditary
/cells arise from other cells

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exocytosis

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particles carried by golgi or vesicles out of cell (see fig 4-14 = mucus being released)

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Pectin

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released by fruit to soften it

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root lube

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secreted to help roots penetrate ground

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phases of signal transduction

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1. reception: signals are hormones or chemicals
2. transduction: secondary messengers
3. induction

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endocytosis types

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1.Reception- signals are usually hormones chemicals produced by one cell type or tissue in order to regulate function else where
2.transduction- secondary massengers produce a reaction
3.induction- activation of cellular processes

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Plasmodesmata

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/ER caught in the forming cell plate
/narrow strands of cytoplasm that interconnected the protoplasts of neighboring plant cells
/Efficient way to move small particles nutrients, sugars, between cells either in bulk flow or via diffusion
/size exclusion limits vary by region of cell
/viruses can us by coding for movement proteins

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symplast

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the continuum formed through plasmodesmata

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apoplast

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space outside protoplast

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cytosol

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fluid with in the cytoplasm containing organelles

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middle lamella (intracellular space)

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first produced when new cell walls are formed(mostly pectin)

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secondary cell walls

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derived from primary walls by thickening and inclusion of lignin

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cutin, suberin

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long chain lipids
waterproofing layers in roots and bark

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Proteins

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amino acid chains - "CCN" structure
R groups can be hydrophobic or hydrophilic
Fold with hydrophobic R on inside
Folding affects function

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amylose

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starch
glucose polymer
linear chain 100 - 1000 subunits
harder to remove glucose

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amylopectin

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starch - branched chain of glucose polymer
1000-6000 subunits
branching -> easier removal of glucose units
cf glycogen in animals - branched, shorter storage

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fructans

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starch - soluble polymer
breaks down in gut
beans, legumes

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enzyme

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protein function
substrate fits the active site of the enzyme
suffix ase appended to substrate
enzyme changes shape as substrate binds to make reaction happen

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protein functions

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enzyme
transcription factors
channels
energy & material storage (in plants: animals if starving)

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transcription factor

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protein function
modify what DNA gene gets expressed, change the amount of messengerRNA mRNA

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channels

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protein function
allow substances to pass thru cell membranes

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aquaporin

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proteins in membranes - channel
allows water transport across cell membranes

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Nucleic Acids

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DNA - info storage
RNA - protein synthesis

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Secondary compounds

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not part of primary metabolism
function for plant = protection from herbivores
human use

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cell structure: plant vs animal

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cell wall
vacuole
chloroplasts

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cell structure: prokaryotes vs eukaryotes

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eukaryotes have organelles & nucleus
prokaryotes have nuclear envelope

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argument for common source of all life on earth?

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shared basic components, ie DNA, protein, ribosomes, plasma membrane, ...

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ribosome

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protein +RNA, site of protein synthesis

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cell parts: nucleus

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densely packed with DNA - most of DNA in cell
command center - controls cell activity by controlling protein synthesis

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cell parts: endoplasmic reticulum & ribosomes

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around nucleus
rough ER: has ribosomes, where protein is synthesized
smooth ER: lipid synthesis

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cell parts: Plastids

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organelles with double membranes
sites of photosynthesis, lipid synthesis, pigment storage

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chloroplasts

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plastid
site of photosynthesis
chlorophyll & accessory pigments

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chromoplasts

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plastid
caretenoids & other pigments
-> color changes during fruit ripening, flowers

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Leucoplast

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colorless plastid
synthesis of oils, starches

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cell parts: mitochondria

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cell energy factory
site of respiration - glucose broken down, ATP produced

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evidence for endosymbiosis

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plastids have their own DNA and double membranes

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peroxisomes

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organelle
use toxic peroxides (o-o) to break down fatty acids
germinate seeds, photo-respiration in leaves

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vacuoles

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storage sacks
holds cell sap, sugars, starches, amino acids, 2ndary compounds

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golgi apparatus

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transport in and out of cell wall

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cytoskeleton

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network of protein filaments used for transport, structure, cell division
transports from golgi
microtubules move chromosomes and organelles during mitosis

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mitosis

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produces cells with the same number of chromosomes as parent,
function = growth
Interphase (gap, synthesis, gap) , prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

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meiosis

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produces cells with half the number of chromosomes as parent
function = sexual reproduction

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apoptosis

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programmed cell death

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interphase

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no active cell division, but preparation
G1: increase in size, checkpoint
S: DNA duplicated
G2: error checking, chromosomes condense

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preprophase band

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microtubules circle nucleus - proteins - end of interphase

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Prophase

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chromatin packs the DNA into organized units, chromosomes condense & thicken, preprophase band shrinks in width, spindle beings to form, winds around histone proteins

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metaphase

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paired chromosomes line up in Middle of the cell

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anaphase

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an = anti, against, apart
chromosomes pull apart via the mitotic spindle

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telophase

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chromosomes separate entirely
formation of cell plate - new cell wall

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plasmodesmata v 2

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physical connections of plasma membranes between cell walls, where cytoplasm can transfer from one to another

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meiosis

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two divisions, meiosis I and II, results in 4 daughter cells, each with 1/2 number of chromosomes
meiosis II is similar to mitosis (but different)

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mitosis vs meiosis

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prophase I of meiosis - crossing over - recombination
anaphase 1 of meiosis: chromosomes stay together
meiosis II

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alleles

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different versions of same gene
dominant - protein is functional
recessive - protein is nonfunctional

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Mendelian inheritance principles

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individuals have pairs of genes that separate during meiosis
alleles for different traits segregate independently
(x - linkage of genes located close together)

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ploidy level

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variations in number of copies of chromosomes - important source of variation in plants
haploid - 1
diploid - 2
triploid - 3 (mitosis but not meiosis)

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alternation of generations

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plants use mitosis to make gametes from spores
both haploid and diploid generations have multicellular individuals
multicellular organisms as evolve spend less time in haploid phase
big difference from animals - only gametes are haploid