Ecology & Evolution

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Taxonomy

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classification of organisms into established groups

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Sytematics

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classification of organisms based on evolutionary relationships

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Character

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a characteristic of an organism

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Character state

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a particular form of a character

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Phylogeny

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the evolutionary history of a group, often presented as a tree

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Principle of Maximum Parsimony

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a method of constructing phylogenies; "the simplest version of history is likely the correct one"

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Homology

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based on shared ancestry

ex. bones in vertebrate forelimbs

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Homoplasy

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having a similar appearance, not due to shared ancestry, AKA convergent evolution

ex. eyes of vertebrates and cephalopod molluscs

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Ancestral (plesiomorphic)

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older, more "primitive" character state

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Derived (apomorphic)

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more recently evolved character state

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Synapomorphy

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derived character state shared by two or more taxa

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Autapomorphy

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a trait unique to a single taxon

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Modern systematics

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organisms are grouped according to shared derived traits (synapomorphies). all other traits are ignored.

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Monophyletic

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a group that includes a common ancestor and all its descendants (AKA a clade), based on shared derived traits

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Paraphyletic

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includes a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendents, based on shared ancestral traits

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Polyphyletic

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common ancestor is not included in the group, based on convergent traits (homoplasy, not homology)

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Monophyletic

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Paraphyletic

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Polyphyletic

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Types of genetic changes that don't affect fitness

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1. Mutations in non-transcribed regions

2. Mutations in introns

3. Synonymous mutations in exons (ex. GCC -> GCA both code for alanine)

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What causes sickle-cell anemia

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A single, non-synonymous mutation in the code for hemoglobin (Glutamic acid -> Val)

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Biological evolution

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change in the genetic composition of a population over time

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Hardy-Weinberg Principle

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Allele and genotype frequencies will remain unchanged (in equilibrium) unless outside forces change those frequencies

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Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

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Genotype frequencies expected when no evolution is occurring

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Requirements for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

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1. No selection

2. No mutation

3. Infinitely large population

4. No immigration or emigration

5. Random mating

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Genetic Drift

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Changes in genetic composition of a population over time due to chance, occurs in all populations

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Examples of genetic drift

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1. Population bottlenecks

2. Founder effect

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Hardy-Weinberg

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μ

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Mutation rate per generation at a particular locus

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Rate of fixation for new mutations, alleles become fixed at the same rate that new alleles are added

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Gene flow

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movement of alleles between populations

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Bergmann's Rule

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Warm blooded animals are smaller near the equator

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Causes of evolutionary change

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1. Natural selection

2. Mutation

3. Genetic drift

4. Gene flow

5. Non-random mating

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Natural selection (list of 3)

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1. More offspring are produced than can be supported

2. Heritable variation exists between individuals

3. Some phenotypes are more successful than others

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Heritability

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Proportion of phenotypic variance that can be attributed to genetic variance

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Heritability equation

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How does natural selection affect heritability?

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Natural selection typically reduces the heritability of a trait.

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Effects of close inbreeding

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1. Expression of recessive deleterious alleles (inbreeding depression)

2. Loss of heterozygosity

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Adaptation

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A trait that enhances fitness, relative to alternate traits in the population

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Directional Selection

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Directional selection increases the proportion of phenotypes with a more extreme version of a trait (ex. peppered moth, male long-tailed widowbird)

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Stabilizing Selection

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Stabilizing selection does not alter the mean, but may reduce variation (ex. optimum birth weight for reduced mortality in humans)

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Diversifying selection

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Shifting of phenotype frequency toward opposite extremes, select against intermediates (ex. birds with intermediate sized beaks are less likely to survive to adulthood, mimicry complexes in butterflies)

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Sexual selection (two types)

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1. Competition for mates, intra-sexual selection

2. Mate choice, inter-sexual selection

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Operational sex ratio

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Relative numbers of males and females available in the mating pool at any time, usually male biased (not in red phalaropes and sea horses)

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Examples of sexual dimorphism

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1. Size dimorphism

2. Dichromatism

3. Behavioral displays

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Examples of male-male (Intra-species) competition

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1. Fighting, displays

2. Sperm competition

3. Infanticide

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Examples of mate choice (intersexual selection)

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Some direct benefits: parental care, nuptial gifts

Indirect or no benefit:

1. Indicator models

2. Fisherian "runaway" models

3. Sensory bias

4. Chase-away selection

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"Good genes" model of intersexual selection

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Traits evolve because they are good indicators of male genetic quality

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Parasite hypothesis

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Bright colors might indicate a male's ability to resist disease and parasites

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Fisherian "runaway" selection

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Traits evolve due to a genetic correlation between preferences and traits

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Sensory bias

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Male traits might evolve due to preexisting preferences in females

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Chase-away sexual selection

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Extravagant traits might result from males and females having conflicting interests (ex. forced copulation in water striders, females have adaptations to resist)

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Protogyny

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Female first, blue headed wrasse

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Protandry

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male first, clownfish

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Fitness at the genetic level

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Success of certain alleles compared to other alleles

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Inclusive fitness

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Fitness of an allele includes effects on the fitness of the individual carrying the allele plus the fitness of others carrying copies of the same allele

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Coefficient of relationship (r)

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The probability that an allele identical by descent is also found in another individual

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Hamilton's Rule

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An allele for helping others will increase in frequency if the benefit to others, weighted by their relationship, exceeds the cost of helping

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Hamilton's Rule

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Kin selection

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The evolution of traits that are favored because they enhance the fitness of relatives

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A. Helping three other siblings

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C. Parasites

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Macroparasites

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can be seen, such as arthropods and worms

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Microparasites

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too small to see, such as bacteria, protozoans, and fungi

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Ectoparasites

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lives on surface of host (ex. flat mites)

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Endoparasites

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live inside hosts (ex. tapeworms)

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Advantages to ectoparasitism

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1. Ease of dispersal

2. Safe from host's immune system

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Advantages to endoparasitism

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1. Ease of feeding

2. Protected from external environment

3. Safer from enemies

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Disadvantages to ectoparasitism

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1. Vulnerable to natural enemies

2. Exposure to external environment

3. Feeding more difficult

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Disadvantages to endoparasitism

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1. Vulnerable to host's immune system

2. Dispersal difficult

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E. both B and C

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Pathogen

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a parasite that causes disease

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Symbionts

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live in or on other organisms

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Coevolution

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joint evolution of two or more species that exert reciprocal selection pressure on each other

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Host defenses against parasites (list)

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1. Immune systems in plants and animals

2. Biochemical defenses in plants and animals (ex. milkweed secondary compounds)

3. Sex? Parasite hypothesis, MHC

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Biological Species Concept

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Actually or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups

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Phylogenetic Species Concept

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A monophyletic group (clade); the smallest diagnosable cluster with single common ancestor

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Problems with Biological Species Concept

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1. Many recognized species hybridize (more than half)

2. The paradox of ring species (gene flow in a ring between different species)

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Problems with phylogenetic species concept

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1. Many species are paraphyletic (~23%)

2. Determining monophyly can be problematic

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How does speciation occur?

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Speciation requires a barrier to gene flow

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Allopatric speciation

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geographically separated

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Sympatric speciation

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occupying the same geographic area

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Prezygotic barriers

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1. Geographic isolation

2. Ecological isolation

3. Behavioral isolation

4. Mechanical or gametic isolation

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Postzygotic barriers

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1. Hybrid inviability

2. Hybrid sterility

3. Hybrid (F2) breakdown

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Species tree

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reflects history of species with nodes showing speciation events

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Gene tree

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shows the history of particular genes

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Monophyly

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Polyphyly

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Paraphyly

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X - Polyphyly (neither mono)

Y - Paraphyly (one is mono)

Z - Reciprocal monophyly (both monophyletic

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B. Leaves; narrow

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Methods plants use to reduce herbivory

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1. Masting

2. Compensation

3. Structural and chemical defenses

a) induced defense

b) secondary compounds

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Masting

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plants produce a large number of seeds some years and few or none in others

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Compensation

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Removal of plant tissues stimulates new tissue growth

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Induced defense

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Stimulated by herbivore attack (ex. cacti produce more spines when attacked)

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Secondary compounds

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Wide variety of chemicals, some function to reduce herbivory

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E. Masting

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Lotka-Volterra Prey Population Model

N - # prey

r - prey pop growth rate

a - capture efficiency

P - # predators

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Lotka-Volterra Predator Population Model

N - # prey

P - # predators

b - conversion of prey to offspring

a - capture efficiency

m - predator mortality rate

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Commensalism

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Population interaction where one population benefits and the other is unaffected

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Mutualism

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Both species involved are benefitting

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Trophic Mutualism

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mutualist receives energy or nutrients from partner

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Habitat mutualism

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one partner provides the other with shelter or favorable habitat

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Service mutualism

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one partner performs ecological function for the other

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B

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Biome

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Large scale biological community shaped by regional climate, soil, and disturbance patterns

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Ecosystem

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Biological community and its abiotic environment

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Synergism

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the effect of interaction between species together is greater than their individual effects

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B. Web II

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Most commonly used measure of community structure is

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species diversity

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Species richness

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all of the species in a delineated area

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Species Evenness

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commonness or rarity of species (relative abundance)

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Shannon-Weiner Index

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C. 1.191

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Trophic cascade

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Rate of consumption at one trophic level changes species abundance at a lower trophic level

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Trophic facilitation

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Consumer is indirectly facilitated by a positive interaction between its prey and another species

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Ecosystem engineers

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create, modify, or maintain physical habitat for themselves and other species (ex. trees and beavers)

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A

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Keystone species

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large effect relative to abundance

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Agents of change

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disturbance - physically injures or kills some individuals and creates opportunities

stress - reduces growth or reproduction of individuals and creates opportunities for other individuals

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Primary succession

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succession in areas completely devoid of life in habitats that have had catastrophic disturbance or are newly formed

often slow as conditions are inhospitable

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Secondary succession

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Reestablishment of community in which most but not all organisms are destroyed on habitats that retain their soil or were not strongly altered by catastrophe

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D. Climax

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E

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E

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Climate

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long-term description of weather at a given location based on averages and variation measured over decades

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Most important components of climate?

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Temperature and precipitation

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Troposphere

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relatively dense, turbulent layer.

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Coriolis effect

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deflection of surface winds blowing north and south because of the earth's rotation

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C. Tilt of earth

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Seasons in the tropics

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little change in radiation but bigger change in precipitation

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Seasons in temperate zones

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larger changes in radiation and bigger changes in temperature

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E

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Vicariance

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division of a population through the formation of a barrier (ex. glacier, continental drift)

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Dispersal

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population is divided through movement of individuals across an already existing barrier. explains ratite evolution.

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D

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E

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Species richness _________ as island isolation increases

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Decreases

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C

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A.

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Nutrients

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chemical elements an organism requires for its metabolism and growth

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Six most common elements in living tissue

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Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur

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Weathering

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Mechanism for making nutrients available

1. Mechanical

2. Chemical

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C

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Nitrogen fixation

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converting N2 into chemically usable forms

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C

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Mean resident time

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amount of time an average molecule of an element spends in a pool before leaving it

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A

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Where does anthropogenic N go?

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N from fossil fuel emissions returns to earth as acid rain, N from fertilizers increases nitrogen runoff and leaching -> eutrophication

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Net secondary production

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A

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Allochthonous energy

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energy from external inputs

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Autochthonous energy

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energy produced by autotrophs within a system

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E

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B

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Trophic level efficiency

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amount of net production at one trophic level divided by the net production at the trophic level immediately below it

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consumption efficiency

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proportion of available energy that is consumed

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assimilation efficiency

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proportion of ingested food that is assimilated

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production efficiency

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proportion of assimilated food that goes into new consumer biomass

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C

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What determines the number of trophic levels in a system?

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1) amount of energy entering system through primary production

2) Frequency of disturbance or agents of change

3) Physical size of an ecosystem

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Environment

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nonliving component of an ecosystem

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ecosystem

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a system in which living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment

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community

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the living component of an ecosystem

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Primary production

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fixation of carbon into chemical energy by autotrophs through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis

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Why do trees lose more carbon than grasses?

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they have more non photo synthetic tissue

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A

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Net primary production = gross primary production - resp

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B

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Why is NPP highest at mid-successional stages?

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Highest proportion of photosynthetic tissue, plant diversity, and nutrient supply

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Methods of measuring NPP

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1) Harvest, above and below ground

2) Remote sensing

3) Chlorophyll concentration

4) Direct measurement of GPP and resp

- net exch. of CO2 in system = Net ecosys exch., NPP = NEE + heterot. resp.

5) Atmospheric CO2

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C

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B