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90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The Big Bang |
- singularity exploded, resulting in photons (electrons, protons, and neurons) - 1st hydrogen formed, then helium - remaining dust and gas formed Earth |
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Creation of Earth |
- violent place, constantly bombarded by debris until 4 billion years ago - simple life began to form 3.5 billion years ago - photosynthesis of organisms transformed atmosphere - liveable because of unique distance from Sun - broken up into 4 major "spheres" |
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Geosphere |
- comprises the solid Earth and includes both Earth's surface and the various layers of the Earth's interior |
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Atmosphere |
- Gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth and constitutes the transition between its surface and the vacuum of space |
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Hydrosphere |
- includes all the water on Earth (including the surface water and groundwater) |
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Biosphere |
- the life zone of the Earth and includes all living organisms, and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed |
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Minerals |
- naturally occurring - Solid - inorganic (non-living) - ordered internal structure (crystaline) - Definite chemical composition (within defined limits) |
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Atomic Structure |
- nearly all of an atom's mass is in the nucleus - proton: charge of +1, mass of 1 - neutron: charge of 0, mass of 1 - electron: charge of -1, mass near 0 |
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Ionic Bonding |
- one atom can give up electrons, the loss will result in a net positive charge for the atom forming a positive atom - one atom can accept electrons, gain results in a net negative charge forming a negative ion |
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Colvalent Bonding |
- electrons are not transferred from one atom to another, but are shared |
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Metallic Bonding |
- occurs only in pure metals (i.e. copper, gold, sliver, etc) - electrons constantly migrate, which results in strong electrical conductivity |
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Crystal Form |
- arrangement pattern of atoms within minerals manifest in external crystal forms - characteristic geometry of crystal faces - some having cubic forms (halite), some form hexagonal prisms (mineral quartz) |
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Cleavage |
- arrangement of atoms within minerals that result in characteristic patterns of breakage - some bonds between atoms are weaker, this is where the mineral will likely break - breaks along well-defined planes |
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Fracture |
- some minerals break in more jagged planes - quartz will break in curves (called a conchoidal fracture) |
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Hardness |
- reflects the overall strength of bonding within the crystal structure - measured in units of Mohs scale of hardness (developed by Frederick Mohs) |
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Lustre |
- the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral - Metallic (lead) - Nonmetallic (quartz) |
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Igneous |
- derived from the latin word ignis = fire, formed from hot material - parent material of these rocks is magma - |
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Magma |
- partial melting of pre-existing rocks - increased temperature causes melting - increased pressure counteracts the melting effect and pushes atoms closer together (rocks at greater depths have higher melting points) - plates move apart to allow melting |
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Batholith |
- very large mass of igneous rock formed from cooling a major magma chamber |
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Dyke |
- a tabular-shaped igneous body oriented at a significant angle to layers of pre-existing rocks |
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Sill |
- tabular-shaped igneous body intruded parallel to layers of pre-existing rocks |
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Laccolith |
- a blister-like igneous body intruded parallel to layers of pre-existing rocks (but involving some upwarping of overlying layers) |
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Volcanic Neck |
- the remnant of igneous material that once occupied the vent of a volcano |
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Phaneritic texture |
- characteristic of intrusive igneous rocks - phaner = visible texture - crystals in igneous rocks are large enough to be observed with the naked eye |
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Aphanitic texture |
- characteristic of extrusive/volcanic igneous rocks - mineral crystals are invisible to the naked eye due to the short cooling period above the surface - a = not, phaner = texture |
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Porphyritic texture |
- characteristic of volcanic/extrusive igneous rocks - two stage cooling that allows some larger crystals to develop |
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Glassy texture |
- characteristic of volcanic/extrusive igneous rocks - lava cools before crystallization occurs - unordered ions remain 'frozen' resulting in this texture - Obsidian is a common example |
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Pyroclastic texture |
- eruptions ejects dust particles (ash) that form fist to car sized bodies - contain pieces of molten material and bits of rock - pyro = fire, klastos = broken |
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Ferromagnesian Minerals |
- most important silicate minerals - contain iron (ferro) and magnesium - dark in color (green, black, brown) as a result - ex. Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Biotite Mica |
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Feldspar Minerals |
- 3 dimensional framework of silica - bonds are less than uniform - cleavage planes mark weakest spots - Most common types of feldspar, plagioclase (white - blue) and potassium (white - salmon)
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Mafic |
- dark coloured rocks (i.e. Gabbro and Basalt) |
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Intermediate color |
- medium coloured rocks (i.e. Diorite and Andesite) |
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Felsic |
- light coloured rocks (i.e. Granite and Rhyolite) |
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Sedimentary |
- 3 kinds of sediments: clastic, chemical, biochemical
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Clastic Sediment: Weathering |
- rocks are broken down by processes of weathering - mechanical weathering and chemical weathering |
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Clastic Sediment: Mechanical Weathering |
- physical breakup or disintegration of rocks without changes in their composition, accomplished mainly by physical agents such as water, wind and ice but can be aided by biological factors |
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Clastic Sediment: Chemical Weathering |
- breakdown or decomposition of minerals due to chemical reaction of minerals with water or gases in the air - produces a number of minerals and free ions (primarily quartz and clay) |
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Clastic Sediment: Transportation |
- transported by gravity, water, wind, ice - small particles deposited in less agitated conditions than large particles (beach sand is well rounded due to tides) - particles transported by mudflows are angular and poorly sorted |
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Lithification |
- once buried sediment undergoes transformation into rocks (lithos = stone) - Compaction and Cementation |
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Compaction |
- particles are squeezed together and becomes rock-like |
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Cementation |
cemented together by minerals and water remaining in pore space, become effectively glued together |
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Common Clastic Sedimentary Rocks |
- Gravel (pebbles, cobbles, boulders) ex. Conglomerate - Sand (sand sized grains, gritty texture) ex. Sandstone - Silt (barely discernible particles) ex. Slitstone - Clay (particles too small to been seen under low magnification) ex. Shale |
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Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Evaporites |
- due to evaporation, ions can become too concentrated causing positive and negative ions to bond and precipitate as minerals - accumulate in basins and sink and become evaporite minerals (i.e. Gypsum and Halite) |
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Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Chemical Limestones |
- a sedimentary rock dominated by the mineral calcite - in caves and hotsprings a branded variety is found called travertine, which displays pores that are produces from the release of gases by bacteria - ex. stalactites and travertine terraces (Yellowstone National Park) |
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Biogenic Sediment |
- materials that are produced by chemical processes associated with biological activity |
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Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks |
- common rocks formed are Fossiliferous limestone, Chert, and Coal
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Fossiliferous limestone |
- composed almost entirely of calcite shells (skeletons) - ex. Chalk (made up of algae skeletons) |
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Chert |
- microscopic planktonic organisms with skeletons made up of silica dissolve into a gel on the sea floor - when solidified it forms Chert, which is basically fine-grained quartz crystals |
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Coal |
- largely composed of organic matter from plants, represents large accumulations of organic matter had been deposited in swaps and subsequently buried |
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Metamorphic Rocks |
3 basic types of metamorphism - contact - regional - metasomatism |
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Contact Metamorphism |
- occurs when a pre-existing rock is baked under relatively low pressures - commonly occurs when rock is heated by igneous intrusion - mineral grains recrystallize in random orientations - pressure is uniform
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Regional Metamorphism |
- occurs when pre-existing rock is subjected to heat and pressure on a regional scale - commonly associated with mountain building events in which rocks are lowered to great depths and squeezed by compressive forces - pressure is differential |
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Metamorphism: Foliation |
- Contact metamorphism results in elongated minerals such as pyroxene and amphibole - Regional results in platy/elongated minerals that have a foliated texture (folium = leaf) |
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Foliated Rocks |
- increasing intensity of metamorphism (grade) results in increased size of mineral grains and the development of distinct types of foliation - often used for architectural purposes - Shale changes into the following rock types - Shale > Slate > Phyllite > Schist > Gneiss |
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Very Low Metamorphic Grade |
- clay minerals from shale begin to transform into small, plate like mica crystals - slight shininess due to larger size of mica crystals - Slate |
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Low to Medium Metamorphic Grade |
- development of more distinct, silky sheen due to larger mica crystals - Phyllite |
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Medium to High Metamorphic Grade |
- appearance characterized by obvious sparkle due to large mirror like mica grains - Schist |
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High to Very High Metamorphic Grade |
- Mica grains are more tabular, elongated crystals or amphibole or pyroxene, separated from light coloured minerals such as quartz/feldspar - Gneiss |
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Common Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks |
- also called granoblastic - they lack play/elongated minerals - ex. quartzite and marble - grow in size and feature an interlocking texture, fossils once present in the original sedimentary rock obliterated due to recrystallization |
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Metasomatism |
- occurs when fluids (generally water or carbon dioxide) react with a pre-existing rock and alter the chemical composition of minerals within the rock - the mineral Olivine reacts with water to for the mineral Serpentine - Serpentine can react with quartz (in a solution) to form talc/soapstone |
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Where did the Griffin myth come from?? |
- possibly a combination of Protoceratops and Oviraptor - nests containing fossilized dinosaur eggs - gold concentrations in dinosaur nest areas ~imagination~ |
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Where did the Cyclops myth come from?? |
- based on an ancient elephant called deinotheres - big nasal opening they thought was an eye - found on the island of Crete |
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Relative Time |
based on the relative timing of geological events (i.e. the order in which events occurred) |
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Absolute time |
the determination of age in years before present. based on the decay of radioactive isotopes |
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Law of Original Horizontality |
- sediments and igneous rocks (lava flows) are deposited as horizontal layers or strata - if they are not horizontal it means they were disturbed by tectonic forces |
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Law of Superposition |
- sedimentary rocks and extrusive igneous rocks, younger rocks sequentially appear over older rocks - in any sequence of layered rocks a given stratum must be older than any stratum on top of it |
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Law of Fossil Succession |
- fossils occur in a consistent vertical order in sedimentary rocks all over the world - the relative age of "slices" of time represented in rocks can be determined from the fossil content of rocks - use fossil index to figure it out |
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Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships |
- faults and igneous intrusions are cut into pre-existing rock bodies - the fault of intrusive body must be younger than the rock through which it has cut |
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Inclusions |
- process of intrusion dislodges fragments of surrounding rock which can become incorporated into an igneous rock body - eroded fragments can be incorporated into later-deposited sedimentary strata - dislodged fragments are called inclusions |
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Law of Inclusions |
- if rock body B contains fragments of rock body A, it must be younger than the fragments of rock it contains |
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Eon - Phanerozoic |
- begins ?? ends 545 - contains the Cenzoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic periods |
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Eon - Proterozoic |
- begins 545 ends 2500 - "visible life" |
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Eon - Archean |
- begins 2500 ends 3800 |
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Eon - Hadean |
- begins 3800 ends 4500 - oldest eon |
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Phanerzoic Era - Cenzoic |
"recent life" Periods - Quaternary - Neogene - Paleogene |
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Phanerzoic Era - Mesozoic |
"middle life" Periods - Cretaceous - Jurassic - Triassic |
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Phanerzoic Era - Paleozoic |
"ancient life" Periods - Permian (Carboniferous, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian) - Devonian - Silurian - Ordovician - Cambrian |
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Cullinan Diamond |
- world's largest (uncut) diamond - 3, 106 carats |
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3 Basic Cuts - Cabochon |
- simple round to oval shape - used in translucent/clouded gemstones with bold colors - turquoise and opal |
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3 Basic Cuts - Brilliant |
- originally developed for diamonds - round cut can have up to 59 facets - takes advantage of 4 cleavage planes in diamonds |
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3 Basic Cuts - Step (Trap) Cut |
- broad table like facet - emphasizes clarity in stones with a low degree of light dispersion |
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3 Basic Cuts - Step (Trap) Cut: Emerald |
- specific to this gemstone - developed to reduce damage of gemstone and other brittle gems - sometimes preferred for flat specimens of diamonds |
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Nonconformity |
- an unconformity that separates underlying metamorphic or igneous rocks from overlying horizontal sedimentary strata |
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Angular Unconformity |
- an unconformity that separates underlying tilted rocks from overlying horizontal sedimentary rocks |
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Disconformity |
- an unconformity that separates underlying horizontal sedimentary rocks from overlying horizontal sedimentary rocks |
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Planispiral |
- a spiral in a single plane - appears in both living and ancient organisms - ex. ammonites and ramshorn snails |
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Helix |
- the lop sided spiral - ex. ram's horns and snails |
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Honeycomb |
- efficient packing pattern - bee's honeycomb's or fossil coral |
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Fractals |
- same shape repeated indefinitely - ex. succulents, broccoflower, bacterial colonies |
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the Rock Cycle |
Igneous > baking pressing > Metamorphic Igneous > erosion, depression > Sedimentary
Sedimentary > baking, pressing > Metamorphic Sedimentary > melting, cooling > Igneous
Metamorphic > erosion, dep. > Sedimentary Metamorphic > melting, cooling > Igneous |
