Diversity Of Form And Function Test 2 Nervous System And Muscles

Front 1

What happens during the recovery phase of an AP?

Back 1

Local sodium and potassium ion concentrations restored to resting by

Na+/K+ pump

Membrane potential returns to resting

Front 2

How is the membrane potential returned to resting?

Back 2

1. Diffusion of ions away from the membrane

2. Diffusion of downstream sodium into hyperpolarized region

Front 3

Action potentials travel down ____ and have a ____ quality their ____ is constant

Back 3

travel down an axon, have an all or none qualitiy and their amplitude is constant

Front 4

How is information about a stimulus deciphered from APs

Back 4

The frequency of APs

Front 5

Saltatory conduction

Back 5

APs hope from one node to the next node (SPEEDS UP APs)

Front 6

What are the node of saltatory conduction called?

Back 6

Nodes of Ranvier

Front 7

3 key steps of information flow in neuronal networks

Back 7

1. Axonal conduction of the action potential

2. Synaptic transmission of chemical signal from presynaptic to postsynaptic neuron

3. Postsynaptic neuron integration of inputs to determine if AP is fired

Front 8

Spatial summation:

Back 8

Occurs when several excitatory post synaptic potentials arrive at the axon hillock simultaneously

Front 9

Temporal summation:

Back 9

Postsynaptic potentials created at same synapse in rapdi succession can be summed

Front 10

What happens when glutamate binds AMPA receptor?

Back 10

Rapid influx of Na+

Front 11

What happens when glutamate binds to NMDA receptor?

Back 11

receptor releases ca2+ which causes channel to open, Ca2+ and Na+ enter

Ca2+ acts as 2nd messanger triggering long term change

Front 12

1 type of neurotransmitter can _____

Back 12

bind to many types of receptors and have different effects depending on the receptor

Front 13

ionotropic receptor:

Back 13

Are ion channels themselves NT binding causes direct change in ion movement

Enable fast short lived effects

Front 14

Metabotropic receptor:

Back 14

Are not ion channels they are induced signal cascades which initiate intracellular singalling which can result in opeining of ion channels

Front 15

Describe steps of transfering stretch in a muscle to AP

Back 15

1. Stretching the muscle is stimulus

2. Activates opening of ion channels in stretch receptor dendrite

3. The resulting depolarizationg spreads to cell body creating a receptor potential

4. Which spreads to the axon hillock stimulating and AP

5. AP travels down axon

Front 16

In sensory systems ____ detects a stimulus

Back 16

a receptor protein

Front 17

3 types of ionotropic receptors

Back 17

1. Mechanoreceptor

2. Thermoreceptor

3. Electroreceptor

Front 18

Mechanoreceptor:

Back 18

Pressure opens ion channel

Front 19

Thermoreceptor:

Back 19

Temp influences a membrane protein that is a cation channel or is closely associated with one

Front 20

Electroreceptor:

Back 20

An electric charge opens an ion channel

Front 21

2 types of metabotropic receptors:

Back 21

Chemoreceptors

Photoreceptors

Front 22

Chemoreceptor:

Back 22

A molecule binds to a receptor, initiating a singal that controls the ion channel via a second messenger cascade

Front 23

Photoreceptor:

Back 23

Light alters a receptor protein, initiating a signaling cascade that controls an ion channel

Front 24

A response to a sensory stimulus ____ with ____

Back 24

decreases with continuous or repeated stimulation

Front 25

decreasing response to a sensory stimulus which is continuous or repeated allows for what?

Back 25

an organism to discriminate between small changes in the coninuous presence of the stimulus

For example being able to detect an increase in light in a room which was already well lit

Front 26

Example of olfaction with moths

Back 26

The female moth releases a pheromone from a gland at the top of her abdomen. The pheromone can travel thousands of meters down wind

The male moth detects the pheromone in the air passing over his antennae which are covered in chemosensitive hairs

Front 27

3 steps of olfaction

Back 27

1. olfactory cilia have receptors that bind specific odorant molecules

2. APs generated by odorant binding molecules are transmitted to glomeruli in olfactory bulb

3. Neurons in a glomerulus recieve input only from receptor cells expressing the same receptor gene (ensures that brain senses correct smells)

Front 28

There are many different odors so ____

Back 28

there are a very large number of different receptors

Front 29

Olfaction generally works through ____

Back 29

a G protein linked pathway that opens Na+ channels that trigger APs (CHEMORECEPTORS)

Front 30

Taste is a mixture of ____

Back 30

true taste (gustation) and smell

Front 31

5 areas of taste and type of receptor

Back 31

Sweet (metabotropic)

Bitter (metabotropic)

Salty(ionotropic)

sour(ionotropic?)

Umami (savoryness proteins)

Front 32

How does taste work?

Back 32

1. molecules bind to receptors on microvilli of sensory cell in taste pores (gustatory cells)

2. Sensory cells release NT that depolarized the dendrites of sensory neurons

Front 33

Touch;

Different areas of the body vary with ____

Back 33

The number and type of receptors present

Front 34

Some touch receptors are ____ some are ____

Back 34

slow adapting and fast adapting

Front 35

Touch:

Free nerve ending involved in _____

Back 35

Pain, itch and temperature

Front 36

____ vs ____ would be more rapidly adapting

Back 36

Sensitive touch receptors vs pressure

Front 37

Process of converting muscle spindle stimuli to APs

Back 37

When muscle spindles are stretched sensory neurons associated with them transmit APs to CNS, these signals stimulate motor neurons which initiate contraction

Front 38

Process of converting golgi tendon organs stimuli to AP

Back 38

GTO sense load and measure the force of muscle contraction when contraction becomes too forceful the sensory neurons send APs to CNS that inhibit motor neurons and muscle relaxes

Front 39

Steps of hearing

Back 39

1. Sound waves travel through auditory cannal and vibrate tympanic membrane

2. Ossicles transmit vibrations of tympanic membrane to oval window of cochlea

3. Vibrating at oval window pressue waves in fluid filled cochlear cannals

4. pressure waves flex membranes in cochlear cannals

5. When basilar membrane is flexed it bends sterocilia on hair cells in organ of corti

6. The movement of sterocilia are tranduced into APs in the auditory nerve

Front 40

Low Pitch:

Back 40

P waves travel FAR down upper cannal and flex basilar membrane activate low frequency sensors

Front 41

mid pitch:

Back 41

p waves travel only part way down upper cannal before flexing basilar membrane and activating mid frequency sensors

Front 42

High pitch:

Back 42

P waves travel a short distance before flexing the basilar membrane and activating high frequency sensors

Front 43

steps of converting sound waves into APs

Back 43

1. The sterocilia project into the middle cannal which contains fluid high in K+ and low in Na+. Thus when K+ channels open, K+ enters and depolarizes the cell

2. membrane depolarization open voltage gated Ca2+ channels, causing NT release

Ion channels open when sterocilia are bent in one direction and close when bent in the opposite direction

Front 44

What are otoliths (ear stones)

Back 44

calcium carbonate granules on the top surface of gelatinous substance which help detect linear movement of body

Due to inertia mass of otholiths, when head changes position, accelerates or decelerates, the gelatinous otholic membrane bends hair cells

Front 45

How does the brain detect movement of the head?

Back 45

In the 3 semicircular canals the gelatinous capulae of hair cells are pushed one way or the other when changes in the position of the head causes the fluid in the canal to shift

Front 46

Rhodopsin

Back 46

Retinal on opsin

When retinal absorbs light it changes its conformation and unbinds to opsin and activates a G protein cascade which changes membrane potential (hyperpolarizies and slows the release of NT)

Front 47

Rod cells ___ they dont ____

Back 47

release NT they dont initiate APs

Front 48

Rod cells response to light:

Back 48

close sodium channels

Front 49

Steps after rod cell absorbs light

Back 49

1. in the absence of light Na+ channels are open and create a depolarizing dark current

2. Rhodopsin absorbs light energy causing a G protein cascade which closes Na+ channels and hyperpolarzes the cell

Front 50

The lens of the mammalian eye _____

Back 50

focuses an inverted image on the fovea of the retina

Front 51

For near vision____

Back 51

ciliary muscles contract causing the lens to round up

Front 52

For distant vision____

Back 52

ciliary muscles relax and suspensory ligaments pull the lens into a flatter shape

Front 53

Cone cells are responsible for ____

Back 53

color vison

Front 54

Cone cell are most dense in the ____

Back 54

fovea region of the retina

Front 55

How can the brain tell different colors

Back 55

The cones have different opsins with different absorption spectum which absorb different wavelengths for different colors

Front 56

The retina contains ____

Back 56

5 layers of neurons

Front 57

Light must travel through _____

Back 57

layers of neurons to get to the receptor (rods and cones)

Front 58

______ is partially processed before ____

Back 58

visual information is partially processed before reaching ganglion cells of optic nerve

Front 59

Light entering eye to brain

Back 59

1. light travels through layers of transparent neurons

2. And is absorbed by the rods and cones (the photorecptive layer) at the back of the retina

3. Visual info is processed through several layers of neurons

4. And finally converge on ganglion cells which send their axons to the brain

Front 60

Excitatory vs inhibitory synapse

Back 60

Excitatory depolarizes bringing cell closer to threshold

Inhibitory hyperpolarizes bringing cell farther from threshold

Front 61

Synapses between motor neurons and muscle cells are ____

Back 61

always excitatory

Front 62

Acytelcholine secretion sites

Back 62

CNS PNS

vertebrate neuromuscular junction

Front 63

Acytelcholine functional class

Back 63

excitatory at vertebrae skeletal muscle

E or I at other sites

Front 64

Norepinephrine secretion site and functional class

Back 64

E or I

CNS and PNS

Front 65

Dopamine secretion site and functional class

Back 65

generally excitatory

CNS PNS

Front 66

Serotonin secretion site and function class

Back 66

Generally inhibitory

CNS

Front 67

GABA secretion and functional class

Back 67

Inhibitory

CNS; invertebrae neuromuscular junction

Front 68

Glutamate secretion and functional class

Back 68

Excitatory

CNS; invertebrate neuromuscular junction

Front 69

Glycine secretion and functional class

Back 69

Inhibitory

CNS

Front 70

Substance P secretion and functional class

Back 70

Excitatory

CNS and PNS

Front 71

Met ekaphalin secretion and functional class

Back 71

generally inhibitory

CNS

Front 72

Nitric oxide

secretion and functional class

Back 72

E or I

PNS

Front 73

How does a hammer tap cause the leg to extend

STEPS

Monosynaptic pathway and polysynaptic

Back 73

1. A hammer tap stretches the tendon in the knee stretching receptors in extensor muscles

2. Stretch receptors fire APs

3. In monosynaptic pathway, the sensory neuron synapses with a motor neuron in the ventral horn of the spinal cord

4. The motor neuron conducts APs to the extensor muscle causing contraction

5. A polysynaptic pathway involving spinal interneuron inhibits firing in the motor neuron for the antagonistic muscle

6. the leg extends

Front 74

The peripheral nervous system carries ____

Back 74

info both to and from the central nervous system

Front 75

The central nervous system recieves

Back 75

hormonal inputs and produces hormonal outputs

Front 76

Conscious info into CNS results in ____

Unconscious info to CNS results in ____

Back 76

voluntary actions

involuntary actions

Front 77

Conscious info to CNS examples

Unconsious info to CNS examples

Back 77

Sight sound smell

BP and deep body temp

Front 78

Voluntary actions produced by CNS

Involuntary actions produced by CNS

Back 78

skeletal muscle and behavior

heart rate, sweating, salivation

Front 79

After 30 days of development what is present in brain

Back 79

optic vesicle

neural tube

cranial and spinal ganglia

Front 80

After 60 days of development what is present in the brain

Back 80

Forebrain

Developing eye

spinal cord

Front 81

After 180 days of development what is present in the brain

Back 81

cerebrum

cerebellum

pons

medulla

Spinal cord

Front 82

All info traveling from periphery to higher brain pass through____

Back 82

brainstem (reticular formation)

Front 83

Thalamus:

Back 83

final relay station for sensory info going to telencephalon

Front 84

Brainstem

Back 84

controls basic physiological functions-breathing, circulation, swallowing and vomitting

Front 85

Hypothalamus:

Back 85

Regulates many physoloical functions and biological drives (hunger and thirst) recieves a lot of info we are not concious of also controls homeostatis

Front 86

Amygdala:

Back 86

Involved in fear and fear memory if blocked cannot be afraid

Front 87

Hippocampus

Back 87

involved in transfer of short term memory to long term

Front 88

Stimulation of neurons in primary motor cortex

Back 88

causes twitches not organized movement

Front 89

Temporal lobe:

Back 89

Recieves and processes auditory info association areas allow us to see an object and identify it

Front 90

Frontal lobe:

Back 90

Contains primary motor cortex neurons in this region control muscles in specific parts of the body

Front 91

Parietal lobe:

Back 91

Contains primary somatosensory cortex which recieves touch and pressure sensation relayed from the thalamus (entire body can be mapped onto it)

Front 92

Occipital lobe:

Back 92

Recieves and processes visual info association areas important for vision

Damage coudl result in not being able to see motion only a series of still images

Front 93

Where are face neurons located?

Back 93

In the temporal lobe

Front 94

evidence for face neurons in temporal lobe

Back 94

Detect brain activity show pic of hand and incomplete faces and reacts maximally to complete face

Front 95

The left side of the ____ communicates with ____

Back 95

cerebral cortex communicates with right side of body and vice versa

Front 96

_____ takes up more area of motorcortex

Back 96

hands and face

Front 97

Does size of the brain matter?

Back 97

There is a correlation between brain size and body size but humans are off the charts and its not just the size of the brain that matters but the size of cerebral cortex (area that provides the resources for great intellectual capacity)

Front 98

Autonomic nervous system is made of _____

describe each

Back 98

Sympathetic nervous system: produces fight or flight response activates! increased HR increased BP and cardiac output help prepare for emergencies

Parasympathetic: deactivates decreased HR decreased BP decreased cardiac output

Enteric NS: nerve net wall of intestines

Front 99

Every autonomic efferent pathway begins with _____ uses ____ as NT

Post ganglion neuron of sympathetic release ____

Post ganglion neuron of parasympathetic release___

Back 99

being with cholinergic neuron (use acetylcholine as NT)

Norepinephrine

Acetylcholine

Front 100

List of parasympathetic activity

Back 100

-Pupil constriction

-Stimulate salivation

-Constrict airways

-Slow HB

-Stimulate digestion

-slight stimulation of glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis

-stimulate intestines

-Stimulate bladder contraction

- stimulate penile and clitoral arousal

Front 101

List of sympathetic activity

Back 101

-Dialate pupils

-Inhibits salivation

-Relaxes airways

-Accelerates HB

-Inhibits digestion

-Stimualtes breakdown of glycogen and glucose release

-Inhibits activity of intestines

-Relaxes bladder

-Stimulates orgasm vaginal contraction

Front 102

On center ganglion cells are maximally stimulated by ____ inhibited by _____

Back 102

light falling on its receptive center and inhibited by a ring of light falling on its receptive fields surrounding

Front 103

An off center ganglion is maximally stimulated by and inhibited by ___

Back 103

by light falling on its receptive fields surround and inhibited by light falling on its center

Front 104

Retinal ganglion cells --->____--->____--->____

Back 104

relay cells in thalamus-->simple cells in cortex--->complex cells in cortex

Front 105

Simple cells of visual cortex respond to ___

Complex____

Back 105

Simple-static bar of light at particular angle

Complex-Moving bar of light

Front 106

The optic nerve crosses at____

Back 106

the optic chiasm

Front 107

The ____ is organized into ____ that recieve info from _____

Back 107

visual cortex is organized into columns that recieve into from the right and left eye

Front 108

Binocular cells____

Back 108

at the boarder of columns recieve input from both right and left eyes

Front 109

Brocas area-

If damaged?

Back 109

located in frontal lobe- essential for speech. Damage results in slow or complete loss of speech but patient can still read and understand language

Front 110

Wernickes area

Damage?

Back 110

located in temporal lobe more involed with sensory rather than motor aspect of language

Damage can still speak fine but words dont make sense, they cannot understand written or spoken language

Front 111

Angular gyrus-

Back 111

Essential for integrating spoken and written language

Front 112

Language for repeating heard word

Back 112

1. Hearing in temporal lobe

2. Wernickes area

3. Brocas area

4. Primary motor cortex

Front 113

Language map for speaking a written word

Back 113

1. See, occipital lobe

2. angular gyrus

3. Wernickes area

4. Broncas area

5. primary motor cortex

Front 114

How do we tell what part of the brains are active when person is performing specific activity?

Back 114

give patient radioactive glucose

More active areas of brain will uptake more glucose and light up red/white less active will be blue

Can have patient perform certain task and watch activity

Front 115

3 types of muscle

Describe

Back 115

Skeletal: responsible for voluntary movement

Cardiac: responsible for beating action of heart

Smooth: creates movement in many hollow internal organs

Front 116

All muscles___

Back 116

utilize actin and myosin filaments for contraction

Front 117

Skeletal muscle is organized into ____

Back 117

a series of bundles

Front 118

Skeletal muscles are ____ ____ and ____

Back 118

thin long and multinucleated

Front 119

The unit of contraction in skeletal muscles is ___

Back 119

sarcomere

Front 120

troponin has ____ subunits

Back 120

3

1 binds actin

1 binds tropomyosin

1 binds calcium

Front 121

Thin filaments are made of ____

Thick made of ____

Back 121

thin-actin

thick-myosin

Front 122

Steps of nercous system control of skeletal muscle

Back 122

1. an AP arrives at axon terminal and vesicles of Ach are released

2. The postsynaptic membrane generates an AP that spreads down T tubules

3. Cause the release of Ca2+ in sarcoplasmic reticulum

4. Release Ca2+ diffuses in sarcoplasm stimulating muscle contraction

5. Ca2+ is taken back up by sarcoplasic reticulum, terminating contraction

Front 123

Steps of sliding filament model

Back 123

1. Ca2+ is released from SR

2. Ca2+ binds to troponin and exposes myosin binding site

3. Myosin head binds to actin releases pi

4. In the powerstroke, the myosin head changes conformation filaments slide past eachother

5. ADP is released ATP binds to myosin causing it to release actin

6. ATP is hydrolyzed myosin head retuns to its extended conformation

7. If Ca is present it repeats if not it stops

Front 124

What is a twitch?

Back 124

the minimum contraction of a muscle fiber

Front 125

Twitches in fast sucession have ___

Back 125

summed effect

Front 126

Tetanus is sustained by ____

Back 126

high rate of stimulation

Front 127

Summed twitches bring a fiber to ____

Back 127

maximum contraction known as tetanus

Front 128

Tendons:

Back 128

Attach muscle to bone

Front 129

Ligaments:

Back 129

Attach bone to bone

Front 130

Shoulder=

Back 130

ball and socket joint

Front 131

Bone in elbow allows you to turn arm over=

Back 131

pivot joint

Front 132

Thumb=

Back 132

Saddle joint

Front 133

Finger=

Back 133

Ellipsoid joint

Front 134

Knee=

Back 134

Hinge joint

Front 135

Ankle=

Back 135

plane joint

Front 136

Lever systems designed to maximize force

Load arm: effort arm

Example

Do what?

Back 136

2:1

Jaw

Generate much force over small distance

Front 137

Lever system designed for speed

Load arm: effort arm

Example

Do what?

Back 137

5:1

human leg

Move low weights long distances with speed

Front 138

Lever for force have ____

Lever for speed have ____

Back 138

medium size effort arm

Very small effort arm

Front 139

In skeletal muscle what travels down T tubules

Back 139

Na+ unlike Ca2+ in cardiac

Front 140

Characteristcs of cardiac muscle

Back 140

uninucleate

connected by gap junctions

myogenic(initate own HB w/o signal)

Calcium release from SR by Ca gated Ca channel

Front 141

Ca2+ Channels of SR are called _____

Back 141

Ryanodine channels

Front 142

____ like adjoning cells of skeletal muscle

Back 142

intercalated discs

Front 143

In a strip of smooth muscle what are the effects of acetylcholine and norepinephrine

Back 143

Acetylcholine: Depolarizes (increases APs, contraction occurs)

Norepinephrine: hyperpolarizes (decreases APs relaxes)

Front 144

Aps in smooth muscle result in _____

Back 144

inflow of Ca2+

Front 145

Effects of calcium in smooth muscle

Back 145

phosphorlylates myosin resulting in contraction

Front 146

___ is always active in smooth muscle

Back 146

a myosin phosphatase removing phosphates

Front 147

steps of smooth muscle contraction

Back 147

1.Ca2+ activates calmodulin

2. Activates a myosin kinase

3. Phosphorylates mysoin head

4. allows it to contract

5. myosin phosphatase dephosphorylates the myosin to stop interactions between actin and myosin