Developmental Psychology 2

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Cephalocaudal trend

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during prenatal the head develops more rapidly than the lower part of the body

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Proximodistal trend

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growth proceeds from the center of the body to the outward parts of thebody

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neurons/ nerve cells

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store and transmit information

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synapses

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tiny gaps where fibers from different neurons come close together but do not touch

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neurotransmitter

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chemicals that are released to send messages across synapses

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programmed cell death

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makes space for the connective structure: as synapses form, many neurons die 20-80% depending on brain region

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synaptic pruning

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returns neurons not needed at the moment to an uncommitted state so that can support future development

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glial cells

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Makeup half of the brain's volume are responsible myelination

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myelination

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the coating of neural fibers with an insulating fatty sheath that improves the efficiency of message transfer

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cerebral cortex

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surrounds the rest of the brain, resembling half of a shelled walnut. it is the largest brain structure accounting for 85% of the brain;s weight and containing he greatest number of nerve synapses

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prefrontal cortex

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lies in front of the areas controlling body movement, is responsible for thought - in particular, consciousness, inhibition of impulses, integration of information, and use of memory, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving

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lateralization

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specialization of the two hemispheres

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brain plasticity

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high plastic cerebral cortex, in which many areas are not yet committed to specific functions, has a high capacity for learning. and if a part of the cortex is damaged, other parts can take over tasks it would have handled

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experience-dependent brain growth

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occurs throughout our lives. it consists of additional growth and refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals and cultures

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marasmus

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is a wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients. it usually appears in the first year of life when a baby's mother is too malnourished to produce enough breast milk and bottle-feeding is also inadequate

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Kwashiorkor

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caused b an unbalanced diet very low in protein. the disease usually strikes after weaning between 1 and 3 years of age

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classical conditioning

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this form of learning, a neural stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. once the baby's nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus produces the behavior by itself.

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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must consistently produce a reflexive response

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Unconditioned response (UCR)

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a refelx

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Condition stimulus (CS)

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a neutral stimulus that produces a response similar to a reflexive response

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conditioned response (CR)

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the response elicited by the CS

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operant conditioning

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the stimulus that follows the behavior can change the possibility that the behavior will repeat itself.

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reinforcer

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a stimulant that increases the occurrence of the behavior

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punishment

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removing a desirable stimulus or adding an unpleasant one o decrease the likely hood of the occurrence

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habituation

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the gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to a repetitive stimulation

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recovery

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a new stimulus causes responsiveness to return to a high level

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imitation

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copying the behavior of another person

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mirror neuron

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scientist have identified specialized cells in motor areas of the cerebral cortex.

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dynamic system theory of development

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mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action. when motor skills work as a system, separate abilities blend together, each cooperating with others to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment.

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perceptual narrowing effect

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perceptual sensitivity that becomes increasingly attuned with age to information most often encountered

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satistical learning capacity

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by analyzing the speech stream patterns they acquire a stock of speech structures for which they will later learn meanings, long before they start to talk around 12 months

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contrast sensitivity

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contrast- refers to the difference in the amount of light between adjacent regions in a pattern.

sensitivity- the contrast in two or more patterns they prefer the one with more contrast

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intermodal perception

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we make sense of these running streams of light, sound, tactile, odor, and taste information, perceiving them as integrated wholes

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sensorimotor stage

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the first two years of life. Piaget believed that infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment. they cannot yet carry out many activities inside their heads

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schemes

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organized ways making sense of experience

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adaptations

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involves building schemes through direct interaction with the enviornment

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assimilation

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we used our current schemes to interpret the external world.

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accommodation

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we create new schemes or adjusts old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely

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organization

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a process that takes place internally, apart from direct contact with they environment. once children form new schemes, they rerrage them linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system

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circular reaction

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provides a special means of adapting their first schemes. it involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby's own motor activity. the reaction is "circulatory" because, as the infant tries to repeat the event again, a sensorimotor response that first occurred by chance strengthens into a new scheme

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intentional, or goal-directed behavior

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coordinating schemes deliberately to solve simple problems

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object permance

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exist when out of sight the understanding that objects continue to

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mental representations

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internal depictions of the information that mind can manipulate

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deferred imitation

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the ability to remember and copy and behavior of models who are not present

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make-believe play

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in which children act out every day and imaginary activities

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violation-of-expectation method

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they may habituate babies, to a physical event to familiarize them with a situation in which their knowledge will be tested. or they may simply show babies an event. heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is "surprised" by a deviation from physical reality and, therefore, is aware of the physical world

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displaced reference

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the realization that words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically presented. emerges around the first birthday

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core knowledge perspective

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babies are born with a set of innate knowledge systems, or core domains of thought. each of these prewired understanding permits a ready grasp of new, related information and, therefore, supports early, rapid development

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sensory register

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where sights and sounds ae represented directly and stored briefly

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short-term memory store

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we retain attended-to information briefly so we can actively "work" on it to reach out goals

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working memory

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the number of items that can be briefly held in mind while also engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items

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central executive

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directs the flow of information, implementing the basic procedures just mentioned and also engaging in more sophisticated activities that enable complex flexible thinking.

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automatic processes

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well-learned that they require no space in working memory and, therefore, permit us to focus on other information while performing them

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long term memory

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our permanent knowledge base

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executive function

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diverse cognitive operations and strategies that enable us to achieve our goals in cognitively challenging situations

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infantile amnesia

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the most of us cannot retrieve events that happened to us before age 3

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autobiographical memory

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we can recall many personally meaningful one-time events from both the recent ad the distant past: the day a sibling was born or a move to a new house

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recognition

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noticing when a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced

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recall

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more challenging because it involves remembering something not present

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zone of proximal development

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refers to a range of tasks too difficult for the child to da alone but possible with the help of more skilled partners

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intelligence quotients (IQ)

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which indicates the extent o which the raw score deviates from the typical performance of the same-age individual

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standardization

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in which most scores cluster around the mean or average with progressively fewer falling toward the extremes

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developmental quotients (DQ)

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most infant test scores do not tap the same dimensions of intelligence assessed in older children

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Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME)

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is a checklist for gathering information and parental interview

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developmentally appropriate practice

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these standards, devised by the US national Association for the education of young children, specify program characteristics that serve young children's developmental and individual needs, based on both current research and consensus among experts

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language acquisition device (LAD)

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innate system that contains a universal grammar, or set of rules common to all languages. it enables children, no matter which language they hear, to understand and speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they pick up enough words

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cooing

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vowel-like noise, they have a present "oo" quality

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babbling

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appears in which infants repeat consonant- vowel combination in long strings, such as "bababababa" or "nanananana"

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joint attention

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in which the child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver

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underextension

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when young children first learn words, they sometimes apply them too narrowly an error

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overextention

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applying a word to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate

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telegraphic speech

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like a telegram, they focus on high-content words, omitting smaller, less important one. (two-word utterances)

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referential style

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their vocabularies consisted mainly of words that refer to objects

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expressive style

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compared with referential children they produce many more social formulas and pronouns

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infant-directed speech (IDS)

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a form of communication made up of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, and repetition of new words in a variety of context

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versus shame and doubt autonomy

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conflict of toddlerhood, is resolved favorably when parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable chocies

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basic emotions

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happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness and disgust- are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival

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social smile

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between 6 and10 weeks, the parent's communication evokes a broad grin

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stranger anxiety

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frequent expression of fear is too unfamiliar adults.

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secure base

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This is the caregiver. a point from which to explore, venturing into, the environment and then returning for emotional support

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social referencing

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actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation

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self-conscious emotions

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humans are capable of a second, higher-order set of feelings, including guilt, shame embarrassment, envy and pride. because each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self.

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emotional self-regulation

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refers t the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals

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temperament

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early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation. reactivity refers to quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity.

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easy child

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quickly establishes regular routines n infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences

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difficult child

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is irregular is daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely

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slow-to-warm-up child

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is inactive, shows mild, low-key reaction to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences

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effortful control

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the capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan an execute a more adaptive response

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inhibited/shy Children

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reactive negatively to and withdraw from novel stimuli

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uninhabited/ social children

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display positive emotion and to approach novel stimuli

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goodness-of-fit model

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describe how temperament and environment together can produce favorable outcomes. Goodness of fit involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning

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atachment

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is the strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress

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ethological theory of attachment

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which recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as evolved response that promotes survival, is the most widely accepted view

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separation anxiety

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becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves

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internal working model

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set or expectations bout the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during times of stress. the internal working model becomes a vital part of personality, serving as a guide for all future close relationships

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strange situation

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laboratory procedure for assessing the quality of attachment between ages 1 and 2. was designed by mary ainsworth in which the caregiver and baby are in the infant are in the room then a stranger come in and the caregiver then leaves the room and the infant is left alone with the stranger. the caregiver comes back into the room and then the stranger leaves. the caregiver leaves the room again and the stranger comes back in later followed by the caregiver.

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secure attachment

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these infants use the parent as a secure base. when separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. when the parent returns they actively seek contact, and their crying is reduced immediately.

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Avoidant attachment

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these infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present. when she leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. during a reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling.

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resistant attachment

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before seperation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. when the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, ad on her return they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior, sometimes hitting and pushing. many continue to cry after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily.

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disorganized / disorented attachment

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this pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. at reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors. most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectivly after having calmed down for displayed odd, froze posture.

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attachment Q-sort

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for children between 1 and 4 years depends on home observation. either parent or a highly trained observer sort behaviors into nine categories ranging from "highly descriptive" to "not at all descriptive" of the child. then a score, ranging from high to low in security, is computed.

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sensitive caregiving

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responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully

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interactional synchrony

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separates the experiences of secure from insecure babies. it is best described as a sensitively tuned "emotional dance" in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion

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self-recognition

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identification o self as a physically unique being

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scale error

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attempting to do things that their body size makes impossible

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empathy

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the ability to understand another's emotional state and feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way.

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categorical self

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they classify themselves and others on the bias of age, sex, physical characteristics, and even goodness versus badness

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compliance

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hey show clear awarenes of caregivers' wishes and expectations and can obey simple requests and commands.

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delay of gratification

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waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act

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family life cycle

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a series of phases characterizing the development of most families around the world

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traditional marriages

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involving a clear division of roles- husband as head of household responsible for family economic well-being, wife as caregiver and homemaker- still exists in western nations

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cohabitation

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refers to the lifestyles of unmarried couples who have a sexually intimate relationship and who share a residence