Developmental Psych Exam 3

Front 1

Development of emotional expression

Back 1

basic emotions (happiness, anger, interest, fear, sadness, disgust) vs. self conscious emotions (guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, pride)

Among Western children, the self-conscious emotion of shame is linked to maladjustment, whereas guilt is related to good adjustment.

Preschoolers whose parents explicitly teach them about diverse emotions are better able to judge others’ emotions when later tested

Front 2

problem centered coping, emotion centered coping

Back 2

problem centered coping: appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide what to do about it. (ex. Fourteen-year-old Matthew feels anxious about an upcoming algebra exam. He reviews his quizzes, determines which type of problems he has trouble solving, and practices those problems)
If problem solving does not work, they engage in emotion centered coping: internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome

Front 3

Understanding Emotions: social referencing and empathy

Back 3

social referencing: relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation

empathy: ability to detect different emotions, to take another's emotional perspective, and to feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way. Empathy is an important motivator of prosocial, or altruistic, behavior—actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self

Nathan feels concern and sorrow when his sister loses her favorite stuffed toy. He puts his arms around her and offers comfort. Nathan is demonstrating sympathy.

Front 4

What is temperament?

Back 4

Early and stable behavioral and emotional reactions to the environment
quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention and emotional self-regulation

the building blocks of personality

Front 5

Thomas & Chess (1956): The New
York Longitudinal Study

5 dimensions, 3 temperament patterns, GOF model

Back 5

5 dimensions used by this study
* activity level
* rhythmicity: how regular the infant is (ex. child's eating, sleeping patterns)
* distractibility
* approach/withdrawal: how the child responds to new stimuli
* adaptability: how the child responds to new environments

3 temperament patterns:
* Easy child: quickly establishes regular routines, is generally cheerful, adapts easily to new experiences (40%)
* difficult child: has irregular daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, tends to react negatively and intensely (10%)
* slow-to-warm-up: inactive, shows mild, low key reactions to environmental stimuli, negative in mood, adjusts slowly to new experiences (15%)

goodness of fit model: acknowledged that environment played a role — match between parenting style and child's initial temperament (ex. super calm friend responded perfectly well to a super difficult child --> leads to a super well adjusted teen)

Front 6

Stability of temperament

Back 6

if you are difficult baby, will you be a difficult child?
research suggests there is some stability, usually if measured after ages 2-3

Front 7

Measuring temperament: reactivity vs. self regulation

Back 7

studying reactivity (the intensity of your emotional response, such as activity level, attention/persistence, fearful distress, irritable distress, positive affect) vs. self regulation (effortful control: capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response)
(These temperamental patterns are widely used, although
there is some criticism of both the dimensions & the usefulness of the classification.)

New types of assessments have been developed. For the most part, a combo of methods is recommended
so now: parental reports, lab observation, physiological measures

Front 8

Shy and Social Temperaments

Back 8

(Jerome Kagan and the Harvard lab)- difficult to change (biology is a big factor here)

Inhibited, shy children:
* withdraw from NEW stimuli
* physically react negatively: high heart rates, stress hormones, stress symptoms
* higher right hemisphere frontal cortex activity

Longitudinal research on children who are shy and inhibited suggests that their fearfulness may protect them from becoming aggressive.

Uninhibited, sociable children:
* higher left hemisphere frontal cortex activity
* display positive emotion to and approach novel stimuli

Front 9

Genetic and environmental influences on temperament

Back 9

genetic influences: responsible for about half of individual differences (10-57%)
environmental influences: non shared environment only (in twin studies) and cultural variations (ex.
cultural value of shyness: shyness= good adjustment in Chinese culture… in the 90s. But now we live in a more globalized society so shyness is associated with poor adjustment in 2002)
goodness of fit: combines genetics and environment—creating child rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning

Researchers rated the twins very similarly
but parents rated the twins very differently — highlight what is unique about the child, and respond to each child in a way that fosters differences (creating non shared environments!)

Front 10

What is attachment?

Back 10

strong interdependence, intense MUTUAL feelings, and emotional bond
- it's exclusive: between child and FEW important others
- through this very important relationship, you develop a sense of trust in others — so influences future friendships/intimate relationships

Attachment is a secure base for exploration of the environment.

Front 11

Why does attachment develop?
Lorenz and Harlow

Back 11

ethological perspective (using animal studies)

* Lorenz: imprinting and geese (geese imprint on the first large body they see, which was the researcher. They do this for survival)
* Harlow: bonding in monkeys (Harlow originally wanted to measuring learning in monkeys, but developed bonding experiments accidentally. Baby monkeys who were separated from mothers did not survive. So he created fake mothers who either gave food and gave warmth with a terricloth. When afraid, babies would go to the terricloth. So feeding does not necessarily equate attachment

Front 12

How does attachment develop? (Bowlby's theory) (**possible essay)

**who is the prevailing theory: Bowlby. what does he say?
stages of attachment (in clear cut, talk about strange situation paraidgm which studied separation anxiety, which discovered 4 types of attachment and state what those are)

Back 12

ethological theory of attachment:
(attachment is biologically determined and promotes survival) human infants are endowed with a set of innate behaviors that are going to help parents respond/attach well
ex. crying, cuteness of babies

Development occurs in 4 stages:
1. Pre-attachment: everything is biological - cute facial expressions bring caregiver closer to them; babies do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult.
2. Attachment-in-the-making: responding differently to strangers than to primary caregivers, beginning to develop a sense of trust
3. Clear-cut attachment (6-8 to 18-24 months): human children begin to display actual attachment behaviors (i.e separation anxiety: becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves, stranger anxiety) (Across cultures, separation anxiety peaks between 6-15 months) ex. Baby Wesley uses his nanny as a secure base from which to explore.
4. Reciprocal relationship: a give and take/ negotiation occurs, there is an unspoken understanding/agreement between them (ex. a child will test the limits)

internal working model: set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and their self's interaction with those figures —guides future close relationships
ex. idea that parents should always answer to a baby's cry, because that's how your parents did it

Front 13

Measuring attachment; this includes Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Paradigm

Back 13

strange situation paradigm (Ainsworth, 1978): observed in Uganda, when children were left alone, they would cry for their mothers
Lab situations: think of it as a show with 8 episodes; involving mother, child, and female stranger (the confederate)

Important to look at:
What does the child do when the mother is present?
How does the child respond when the mother leaves?
How does the child respond at reunion time?
How does the child respond to a stranger?

measures separation and stranger anxiety

Front 14

Attachment Types

Back 14

securely attached: infant uses parents as secure base. When separated, may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. (65%)

insecurely attached
*anxious/avoidant: infants are unresponsive to the parent, the opposite of clingy (20%)

*anxious/resistant: clingy, don't explore, very distressed when parents leave, when the parent returns almost angry at the parent (10-15%)

*disorganized/disoriented: no pattern, contradictory behaviors, no emotion, cry unexpectedly, usually seen in children who have been neglected/abused (5-10%)

Front 15

Attachment Q Sort

Back 15

alternative measuring method suitable for children between 1-4 years, depends on home observations

sorts 90 behaviors into 9 categories, ranging from "highly descriptive" to "not at all descriptive". Then a score ranging from high to low in security is computed

may better reflect parent child relationship in daily life

Front 16

Stability and cultural variations in attachment

Back 16

securely attached babies more often maintain their attachment status than insecure babies
The exception is disorganized/disoriented attachment—an insecure pattern that is as stable as attachment security. Nearly 70% percent of disorganized/disoriented infants retain this classification over the second year. Majority remain insecure into early adulthood. Disorganized/disoriented attachment is uniformly related to both internalizing and externalizing problems during the preschool and school years.

In most countries, kids are securely attached. But in Japan and Germany, children are more clingy
It's not that the children are more clingy— the paradigm (avoidant, secure, resistant) is not realistic for these cultural contexts

Front 17

Factors that affect attachment security

Back 17

*opportunity for attachment

*quality of caregiving: sensitive caregiving (responding consistently to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully)
interactional synchrony: caregiver responds to infant signals in a well timed, rhythmic fashion. Among Western infants, this style of communication predicts secure attachment

*infant characteristics (temperament has been debated) (mostly goodness of fit)

*family circumstances (ex. In the United States, child-care environments that provide the very worst care tend to serve middle-SES families, who are likely to place their children in for profit centers, where quality tends to be lowest.)

*parents' internal working models: personal experience that has shaped their idea of what it means to be a good parent

CULTURAL CONTEXT

Front 18

How does the early self develop? Self awareness and self recognition

Back 18

1. Self awareness (I-self): see yourself as different from the world (I am a boy, I like cookies — not thinking about your inner workings, a definitional interpretation)
2. Self-recognition (Me-self): recognize themselves as a physical unique self (able to recognize images of themselves/in mirrors like in the Rouge Test) —also get emotions (shame, doubt, self-consciousness) and able to make self-evaluations

By age 3.5, children begin to describe themselves in terms of typical emotions and attitudes

However, they make scale errors: attempting to do things that their body size makes impossible

Front 19

desire theory of mind vs. belief-desire theory of mind

false belief

recursive thought

Back 19

desire theory of mind: Toddlers and young preschoolers think that people always act in ways consistent with their desires and do not realize that less obvious, more interpretive mental states, such as belief, also affect behavior

Between ages 3-4, exhibit belief-desire theory of mind, a more advanced view —behave according to what you want and what you believe

children have false beliefs (what they think is not necessarily what happened) because they have belief-desire theory of mind

Mindy, a preschooler, is able to perform well on false-belief and other theory-of-mind tasks, which indicates that Mindy’s mother probably describes Mindy in terms of mental characteristics.

Many studies show that language ability strongly predicts preschoolers’ grasp of false belief.

(In middle childhood and adolescence) Recursive thought (derived from the idea of second order false beliefs): ability to view a situation from at least two perspectives—that is, to reason simultaneously about what two or more people are thinking
(second order false beliefs: children's beliefs about other people's beliefs...and they're understanding that those can be false)

Front 20

What is self concept? How does it develop?

Back 20

set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, values that define the individual

Development of self-concept proceeds in the following manner:
from concrete (Who are you? I am a girl. I have brown eyes.) to abstract (Who are you? I am a woman who fights for justice!)

increasing differentiation and complexity (seeing yourself differently in different contexts)

Front 21

Self concept: early childhood

Back 21

cognitive and linguistic gains during the second year of life lead to:
Descriptions of the self is within the "categorical self"
(Very concrete) Descriptions based on:
* observable characteristics (appearance, possessions, behavior)
* typical emotions and attitudes (I'm a good girl, I'm a happy girl)
* asserting rights to objects ("Mine!")

Developing a representation of the self as a historical entity: start to think of your self as having a past and future. So here's the progression:
categorical self (on the basis of distinct attributes like age, gender, physical characteristics) turn into --> remembered self (life story narrative) --> enduring self (builds connections between past, present, future; a view of themselves as persisting over time)
ex. When I was in high school X happened, which influenced me to become X.

The remembered and enduring self develops in the context of verbal interactions with others (e.g reminiscing or narrative convos)
Dialogues between adults and children lead to a remembered self, a form of autobiographical memory that develops a more complete understanding of their sense of self than episodic memories.

Front 22

Self concept: middle childhood and adolescence

Back 22

development in cognitive skills, such as perspective taking skills (seeing themselves from others' perspectives), and a more complex social life leads to:
* more balanced, fewer all-or-none descriptions (ex. I'm okay at sports, I'm not bad...)
* social comparisons (I'm not as great at math compared to my other classmates)
* ideal and real self (distinction between who they are and who they imagine themselves to be. —I wanna be the next Mia Hamm…but I need to practice)
* Reference social groups (I am part of the athletes in my class)

Children stop talking about specific behaviors and actually start creating holistic views of self

As they develop their self-concepts, older adolescents begin to make use of qualifiers, which reveal their awareness that psychological qualities often change from one situation to the next.

Alexandria is able to use inferences about others’ personalities to create organized character sketches that integrate physical traits, typical behaviors, and inner dispositions of people she knows. Alexandria is probably between the ages of 14-16 years.

Front 23

What is self esteem? (**possible essay)

** one pt on listing types of self esteem
role of social comparisons
influences on self esteem

Back 23

judgements we make about our own worth and the feelings we have toward those judgments (the evaluative side of self concept)

* self esteem includes: global appraisal and judgments of different aspects of self
* development of self esteem parallels that of self concept; increases in differentiation and complexity
* two main factors seem to influence the development of self-esteem: child rearing experiences and attributions of successes and failures

Age 4, preschoolers have several self judgements "Preschoolers rate their own abilities as unrealistically high"

Around 6-7: general self esteem is made up of:
academic competence (language arts, math, other)
social competence (relationship with peers, relationship with parents)
physical/athletic competence (outdoor games, various sports)
physical appearance (more in adolescence; highly correlated with general self worth, no matter what other competence you value)
First, self esteem declines as their performances are judged in relation to those of others. Then, balance social comparisons with personal achievement goals

"Once Marcella reaches school age, her capacity to view herself in terms of a stable disposition will enable her to combine her separate self-evaluations into a general psychological image of herself—an overall sense of self-esteem."

Adolescence- become more discriminating in the people to whom they look for validation for their self esteem

Front 24

Adolescence: Identity Development
What is identity?

Back 24

Answers 3 main questions:
Who am I? Who was I? Who do I want to become?
Includes: values, beliefs, behaviors, and life choices

Developing a "true" self: career, relationships, sexual orientations, ethnic/racial group membership, political views, religion, and morality

Developmental changes:
cognitive: abstract thinking allows for contemplation of the hypothetical; perspective taking abilities increase and you're able to consider how others see you
physical: physical change and maturation lead to different experiences and social interactions
social: increased knowledge and understanding of social dynamics

Research on identity development indicates that adolescents who go to work after high school settle on an identity status earlier than college-bound youths.

Front 25

Marcia's identity status measure

Back 25

expanded Erikson's theory of identity vs. role confusion stage to include exploration and commitment
clinically interviewed adolescents about career plans and beliefs and found four distinct patterns along the path to identity achievement

You can apply Marcia's and Erikson's stages to various parts of your identity (sexual orientation, cultural, racial etc)

The Four Identity Statuses **will be in fill in the blank
* identity achievement (high exploration, high commitment): most positive outcome (ex. I've been doing a lot of thinking and have tried out different internships, and I want to become a psychologist)
* identity diffusion (low exploration, low commitment): I'll just wing it, it doesn't really matter, I'll just find some odd jobs here and there
* identity foreclosure (low exploration, high commitment): I really don't care; but in my family, there's a lot of doctors so I guess I'll go to medical school
* identity moratorium (high exploration, low commitment): I really don't know what I want to be; all careers seem interesting

Front 26

ethnic identity development

Back 26

For teens who are members of minority groups, ethnic identity is central to the quest for identity

acculturative stress: psychological stress resulting from conflict between the minority and the host culture

forming a bicultural identity: exploring and adopting values from both the adolescent's subculture and the dominant culture

Minority teenagers who have experienced discrimination are likely to have low ethnic pride.

Front 27

Erik Erikson stage theory

Back 27

(from cradle to grave)
went beyond Freud's psychosexual stages and talked more about social interactions —psychosocial stages

- each stage builds upon each other; resolution of prior stages influences how one faces the next
- everyone goes through the stages in the same order
- each crisis must be resolved (whether positively or negatively)
- identity development begins during infancy and continues through the lifespan. However, the crisis of identity peaks during adolescence
(first four stages lay building blocks for identity development; then the next stages for personality development)
- society is putting these tasks in front of you
by a certain age, must move on to the next stage or else there will be shame

Front 28

Erik Erikson: 8 psychosocial stages

Back 28

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy): resolve feeding and being 
comforted, sleeping—correlates to the development of attachment; potential positive outcome = hope and drive

2. Autonomy vs. shame/doubt (toddler): resolve Toilet training, muscle 
control, walking; Willpower and self‐control

3. Initiative vs. guilt (early childhood preschool): Exploration and discovery, adventure, play—gaining confidence in yourself as a initiator/creator, and an inadequate resolution would be low self esteem; gaining purpose and direction

4. Industry vs. inferiority (middle childhood): Achievement and accomplishment of tasks, shown in a social context; gaining social and academic competence

5. Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): gaining commitment to different aspects of yourself; an inadequate outcome would be a fragmented idea of self

6. Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood): Intimate relationships, work and social life — Erikson believed we need to be connected to others; love

7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): because you are a member of a community, not enough to share yourself with one other. must give back/show concern for the world—did my presence in the world make the world a better place?; gaining care and production

8. Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood): acceptance of the circle of life, being generally satisfied with the mark you have made in this world; gaining wisdom and fulfillment

Front 29

reducing prejudice

Back 29

One strategy for reducing prejudice in children is to teach them that human attributes are malleable and flexible.

One way to reduce prejudice in children and adults alike is through intergroup contact with cooperative task-sharing.

Front 30

resolving conflict among children

Back 30

When a conflict occurs, most 5- to 7-year-olds rely on persuasion and compromise to resolve differences

Tameka is a kindergarten teacher and wants to emphasize to her students that they should not be hitting, shoving, grabbing, or insisting that others obey them. Tameka should keep in mind that children of this age are able to think of alternate strategies for solving social problems when the first one does not work.

Front 31

Three main views of moral development
2. Morality as the adoption of societal norms: psychoanalytic theory

Back 31

both psychoanalytic theory and social learning theory regard moral development as a matter of internalization: adopting societal standards for right actions as one's own

Freud - Children, to maintain their parent's affection, form a superego, or conscience. Painful feelings of guilt when they disobey the superego. Guilt is the only force that compels us to act morally and moral development is complete around 5-6 —wronggggggg

Today - induction: adult helps child notice others' feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehaviors ("She's crying because you won't give her back her teddy bear") This strategy becomes effective at 2 yrs.
inductive discipline encourages empathy based guilt (expressions of personal responsibility and regret), which motivates prosocial behavior

Contemporary researchers dispute Freud’s view that fear of losing parental love leads to moral development.

Front 32

Three main views of moral development
2. Morality as the adoption of societal norms: social learning theory and behaviorist

Back 32

social learning: modeling moral behavior
behaviorist: rewards and punishment….behavior precedes cognition

Front 33

Three main views of moral development
3. Morality arises from social interaction

What is the dominant perspective?

Back 33

children engage in play/natural every-day experiences, and they develop rules that will make play more enjoyable for everybody

The dominant perspective:
cognitive developmental theory: you need to have a foundation of cognitive skills in order to start thinking about moral development; children are active thinkers about social rules… cognition precedes behavior

construction: actively attending to and interrelating multiple perspectives on situations in which social conflicts arise and thereby attaining new moral understandings

Front 34

Three main views of moral development
1. Morality is a consequence of evolution

Back 34

we are a social species, and our brains have developed self control for the benefit of the group
Which perspective does this view have on moral development? (biological: evolutionary, genetic heritage & brain areas)

Front 35

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Back 35

According to Piaget, the two factors that limit children’s moral understanding are parents’ insistence on compliance and children’s cognitive immaturity.

Piaget observed that games are social institutions.

Heteronomous Morality (<10)
* rules are created by an outside authority
* rules are permanent, unchangeable, require strict obedience
* children judge wrongness by outcomes, not intentions (ex. kid breaks 100 plates by accident vs. kid breaks 1 plate on purpose. Would say kid who breaks 100 is more wrong because he broke more plates)
realism: tendency to view mental phenomena, including rules, as fixed features of reality

Autonomous Morality (around 10)
* morality of cooperation: rules are socially agreed on, changeable
* standard of ideal reciprocity ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.")
* judge on outcomes and intentions

Limitation: theres a difference between the way a 10 year old thinks about morality vs 20 year old

Front 36

Kohlberg's theory of moral development:
Main premise of how moral development occurs

Back 36

extended Piaget's thinking

Main permises:
* Moral reasoning is a consequence of social experiences that create situations that stimulate our mental processes
* Stage concept (discontinuous, invariance, integration of skills)
* Used Piagetian methods: clinical method

Front 37

Kohlberg's theory of moral development:
Stages of moral reasoning (with the Heinz Dilemma example)

Back 37

According to Kohlberg, the maturity of moral judgment is determined by the way an individual reasons in the Heinz dilemma.

Preconventional Level (not yet part of society in your thinking)
Stage 1: punishment and obedience — only one right answer and rationale is based on fear of punishment
prostealing: If you let your wife die, you will be blamed for her death
antistealing: You'll get sent to jail
Stage 2: instrumental purpose/ individualism and exchange — thinking only about themselves, so each person is free to pursue individual interests; beginning to hold 2 answers
pro: If Heinz risks jail to save his wife, it's his life he can do what he wants with it.
anti: Heinz is running more risk than it's worth to save a wife who is near death

Conventional Level (status quo):
Stage 3: interpersonal cooperation/ "good boy-good girl" — focus is on Heinz's duty as a husband/in the family
pro: He should steal the drug because that's what good husbands do
anti: You'll feel bad thinking how you brought dishonor on your family and yourself
Stage 4: maintaining social order — focus is on Heinz's duty as a member of society; you don't question and just follow the law.
pro: Heinz's duty is to protect his wife but its wrong to steal, so he would have to accept the penalty.
anti: It's his duty as a citizen to obey the law

Postconventional Level (going beyond status quo)
Stage 5: social contract — think about the laws that have lead up to Heinz's situation, understanding that there's a process for changing laws if they're "wrong"; believe in the integrity of the society/democracy
pro: The law needs to be reinterpreted to take into account situations in which it goes against people's natural right to keep on living
Stage 6: universal ethical principle — (MLK Jr, Gandhi) thinking about justice/fairness; not only are laws broken...society is broken itself. Must fight society to make change
pro: It doesn't make sense to put respect for property above respect for life itself.

Front 38

Kohlberg's theory of moral development:
Current research on Kohlberg's stages

Back 38

* Few, if any, people reach post conventional morality (Kohlberg would say that people aren't mature until they reach post conventional. What does this say about our society? Perhaps Kohlberg was capturing the whole picture.)
* "Conventional" levels may require more profound thought than Kohlberg suggested (Gibbs)
* In real life, people often reason below levels of which they are capable (Krebs & Denton): situational factors & emotions. Kohlberg’s theory inadequately accounts for morality in everyday life.
* More appropriate for adolescent and adult development than for early and middle children

Front 39

Kohlberg's theory of moral development:
Gilligan's critique

Back 39

Gender differences

Carol Gilligan - person who really questioned Kohlberg
* Kohlberg: rights and justice orientation vs.
* Gilligan: caring for others orientation— ETHIC OF CARE: there is not only an impersonal orientation/search for what is just and right, but also a personal orientation
* Bottom line: both sexes use both orientations, but females might stress care more because they have greater experiences as caregivers

Front 40

Kohlberg's theory of moral development:
Environmental influences on moral reasoning

Back 40

* personality (flexible/open minded, social skilled people tend to score higher in moral reasoning. Able to explore different opportunities/be exposed)
* child rearing practices (caring, supportive; discuss moral concerns) When you allow a fair exchange of ideas
* schooling (higher education is linked to moral development)
* peer interactions
* culture (in some cultures, what is moral is very different from the impersonal idea of morality that Kohlberg was emphasizing.)

Front 41

Gender stereotypes

Back 41

Masculinity (instrumental traits) - competence, rationality, assertiveness, achievement, aggressiveness
Femininity (expressive traits)- warmth, caring, sensitivity, emotional, passivity submissiveness

Front 42

Gender stereotyping in early childhood

Back 42

2-3 years - children begin to demonstrate rough understanding of gender
Initial ideas are based on stereotypes
Then they begin to adopt gender roles/behaving with societal gender expectations
Around early childhood, develop a gendered identity

stereotypes begin around 18 months, stereotypes include activities and behaviors, stereotypes strengthen and become rigid

Front 43

Gender stereotyping in middle childhood and adolescence

Back 43

During early adolescence, both sexes, but particularly girls, experience gender intensification: inc gender stereotyping/movement toward a more traditional gender identity

extend stereotypes to include personalities and school subjects, more flexible about behavior (ex. can be a nurturing man or a competitive woman)

When asked if a father could stay at home and raise children while the mother went to work, 10-year-old Hans replied, “Yes.” Hans is demonstrating gender-stereotype flexibility.

Front 44

Genetic and environmental influences on Gender stereotyping

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Genetic influence: evolutionary adaptiveness (because women biologically give birth, we tend to be more nurturing because the infant relies on us. The adult life of our male ancestors was largely oriented toward competing for mates, and that of our female ancestors toward rearing children) & hormones (hormone that increases activity in male infants which translates to more rough play)

Environmental: family, teachers, peers, broader society
ex. With respect to child-rearing values, parents describe competition and control of emotion as important for sons and warmth and closely supervised activities as important for daughters.
ex. In teaching situations with their school-age children, parents more often ignore or refuse to respond to a son’s request for help, whereas they offer help to a daughter right away.
ex. Overall, teachers more often interrupt girls than boys, leading to female passivity and male dominance.
ex. In a British study in which mothers reported on the play and other behaviors of their 3-year-olds, children with same-sex older siblings were more gender-typed than children with no siblings.

Research on sex differences in personality traits shows that cultural expectations for behavior, rather than biological influences, are largely responsible for the gender gap in emotional sensitivity.

One way adults can combat stereotypical thinking in children is to substitute child, friend, or adult for boy, girl, man, or woman.

Front 45

Gender and toys (not sure if this is on the test?)

Back 45

Males:
Play with movement based toys (ex. cars) linked to Elementary math/science abilities linked to Adolescent visual spatial skills!

Females:
Complex dramatic play (ex. doll houses) linked to Language/English abilities

Front 46

Gender identity development
psychodynamic explanations (Javanna doesn't think this on the test)

Back 46

identification (children adopt the idea of gender through identification with the parent of the same sex)

* Freudian explanations: primary (attachment with mother) and secondary identification (here children develop sense of gender)...this process is confusing for women so this is why men are better LOL. Oedipal and Electra complex

* Chodorow (Feminist perspective): affiliation (girls go through this as their secondary) vs. differentiation (boys go through this as their secondary). Mothers see their daughters as an extension of themselves, little girls feel that, and so they develop their sense of gender through thinking they're alike. Mother sends vibes of "You are my opposite" to their sons, so boys separate.

Front 47

Gender identity development theories: social learning theory

Back 47

behavior leads to gender identity. BEHAVIOR --> COGNITION

Front 48

Gender identity development theories: cognitive developmental (Kohlberg)

Back 48

self perceptions (gender constancy) precede behavior. COGNITION --> BEHAVIOR

Kohlberg (Piagetian)

in order to develop gender identity, the child must gain an understanding of gender as stable and constant
Gender constancy develops in 3 stages:
1. gender labeling (early preschool years): ex. Three-year-old Jazara can correctly identify males and females. But when asked whether she could be a boy if she wanted to, she answers “yes.”
2. gender stability (5-6 yrs) THROUGH TIME. ex. Anfisa knows the difference between boys and girls and understands that girls become women and boys become men. However, Anfisa believes that if a boy puts on a dress and wears a feminine hairstyle, he becomes a girl.
3. gender consistency (early school yrs, 6-7) - no matter what situation, you are a girl. THROUGH DIFFERENT CONTEXTS

Gender constancy is the big umbrella term. You have developed an understanding of gender. But to have a fully developed gender schema, go through these 3 stages.

But that would mean they wouldn't act their gender until 7…lol no

Front 49

Gender identity development theories: gender schema theory

Back 49

combines social learning and cognitive developmental theories. COGNITION <--> BEHAVIOR
Develop a schema of what is appropriate for you as a gendered individual

Boy sees a doll --> GENDER SALIENCE FILTER (Am I thinking about gender?)
Gender aschematic child (doesn't think about gender) --> INTEREST FILTER (Do I like this toy?)

Gender schematic child (thinks about gender) --> GENDER SCHEMA FILTER (Should boys play with dolls?) + INTEREST FILTER (Do I like this toy?)
Precedes to either play with doll or ignore doll depending how flexible their schema is