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87 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Historical Foundations: Preformationism (medieval times)
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children were mini-adults; at conception, a homunculus was formed not a single cell
Laws that recognized that children needed protection from people who might mistreat them Religious writings- sometimes portraying innocence/angels, sometimes devil |
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Historical Foundations: The Reformation (16th century)
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children were beginning to be seen as unique and different from adults
Children were born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized Puritans trained children in self-reliance and self-control |
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Historical Foundations: Locke's environmentalism (17th century)
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We are who we are because of the environment
Children are born tabula rasa (blank slate) Use of praise and approval as rewards, opposed physical punishment Locke regarded development as continuous: adult like behaviors are gradually built up through the warm, consistent teachings of parents |
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Historical Foundations: Rousseau's naturalism (18th century):
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Children were endowed with abilities which are then unfolded as they develop (did not talk about genes, talked about nature…we are preprogrammed to become who we are)
A good parent allowed nature to take its course Children are noble savages with a built in moral sense Rousseau viewed development as a discontinuous, stage wise process that follows a single, unified course mapped out by nature |
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Historical Foundations: Darwin's evolutionary theory (19th century):
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conceptualized development as a process of change
the development of the individual followed the same path as the development of the species--not true |
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Basic Issues: Nature vs. Nurture
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what drives development?
for what skills, how do the environment and genes interact? at what point in time does one have more weight? A blend of both --> your genes make you seek out different environments which in turn make up your personality |
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Basic Issues: Continuous vs. Discontinuous
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How does development proceed?
Is development a gradual accumulation of skills (continuous)…or is it in stages (implying that you gain skills in a stage that you did not have in a previous stage)? Ex. word memory task- 7 year old gets more words right than 3 year old continuous: 7 year old has more experience, greater memory, more connections, gaining more complexity in the skills (so the 3 year old has the ability to memorize but just needs the experience to demonstrate those skills) discontinuous: 7 year old has a skill (grouping) that is not available at age 3 |
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Basic Issues: Single vs. Multiple paths towards optimal development
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Does context shape development?
optimal = normative (Normative approach: taking averages of behavioral measures to represent typical development) most agree with multiple paths --> Children grow up in distinct contexts: unique combos of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change |
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Basic Issues: Individual differences- Stability vs. Open to Change
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(Shy child, can you be a social adult?): are unique characteristics stable or not across lifespan?
Stability- children who are high/low in a characteristic will remain so at later ages; theorists look to early experiences as establishing a lifelong pattern of behavior Plasticity- development is open to change in response to influential experiences |
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Mid-twentieth century theories: Psychoanalytic perspective
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Discontinuous: psychosexual (Freud) and psychosocial (Erikson) development takes place in stages
Single path: stages are assumed to be universal Both nature and nurture: innate impulses are channeled and controlled through child rearing experiences. Early experiences set the course of later development |
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Mid-twentieth century theories: Behaviorism and social learning theory
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Continuous: development involves an inc. in learned behaviors
Multiple paths: behaviors reinforced and modeled may vary from child to child Emphasis on nurture: development results from conditioning and modeling. Both early and later experiences are important. |
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Mid-twentieth century theories: Piaget's cognitive developmental theory
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Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world.
Discontinuous: stages Single path: stages are universal Both nature and nurture: development occurs as the brain grows and children exercise their innate drive to discover reality in a generally stimulating environment. both early and later experiences are important |
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Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Information Processing
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The mind is a symbol-manipulating system (often using flowcharts to represent thoughts)
Continuous: gradually improve in perception, attention, memory, problem-solving skills Single path: changes studied characterize most/all children Both nature and nurture: children are active, sense making beings who modify their thinking as the brain grows and they confront new environmental demands |
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Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Ethology and evolutionary developmental psych
Define sensitive and critical periods |
Ethology: adaptive, or survival, value of behavior evolutionary developmental psych: organism-environment system
Both continuous and discontinuous: gradually develop a wider range of adaptive behaviors. - sensitive period: a certain behavior of development is undergoing the most changes/most responsive to environment (ex. sensitive period for certain organs in prenatal development; ex. right time for attachment 0-2 years) - critical period: child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment. after it passes, NOT going to develop a skill (ex. some people believe that if you're not exposed to 2nd language within first 10 yrs, will not develop truly bilingual skill) Single path: adaptive behaviors and sensitive periods are same for everyone Both nature and nurture: evolution and heredity influence behavior, and learning lends greater flexibility and adaptiveness to it. In sensitive periods, early experiences set the course of later development |
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Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
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Both continuous and discontinuous: language acquisition and schooling lead to stage wise changes. Dialogues with more expert members of society also lead to continuous changes that vary from culture to culture
Multiple paths: socially mediated changes in thought and behavior vary from culture to culture Both nature and nurture: heredity, brain growth, and dialogues jointly contribute to development |
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Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Ecological systems theory
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Not specified if cont or discont
Multiple paths: children's characteristics join with the environment at multiple levels to mold development in unique ways Both nature and nurture: characteristics and reactions of others affect each other in a bidirectional fashion |
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Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Dynamic systems perspective
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Both continuous and discontinuous: change in the system is always ongoing. Stagelike transformations occur as children reorganize their behavior so components of the system work as a functioning whole
Multiple paths: biological makeup, everyday tasks, social experiences vary, yielding wide individual differences in skills Both nature and nurture: mind, body, physical and social surroundings form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills |
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Applications of Developmental Theories
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Social policy and public policy- laws and government programs designed to improve current conditions
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6 basic steps of research
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1. formulate questions/hypotheses
ex. Does watching aggressive cartoons influence children's aggressive behaviors? based on previous research 2. operationalize variables of interest ex. what is aggression? define what "children"? what are aggressive cartoons? have to be very specific on how you define aggression 3. define methods and design the study 4. data collection 5. data analysis 6. interpreting results so what? why do we care about these findings? |
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What is research?
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Carefully planned and systematic way of answering
one or more questions, following certain guidelines that will ensure that the answers are the most objective, valid, and reliable that we can find |
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The difference between psychology and applied psychology
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Both psych and apsy are influenced by what we experience in the world, linked to what other researchers have done, and research is based on a theory
in apsy, there is a real world issue/practical problem (ex. Melzi --> In the US, Latino children tend to underperform than any other ethnic group starting at 2) that turns into a research topic (language development and family engagement) that turns into a research question (How do Latino parents support children's education in the preschool years?) that turns into a research answer (assessments were culturally biased, so developed new assessments for Latino families) that goes back to the practical problem* (develop interventions, go back to the Headstarts) Yes gaining knowledge helps in the long term, but applied psychologists bring back the knowledge to help short term |
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criteria of scientific research: reliability
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consistent/repeatable results
interrater reliability (all researchers who are measuring the same thing establish a standard so they can all code behaviors the same way) test-retest (comparing responses to the same measures on separate occasions) |
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criteria of scientific research: validity
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accurately measuring characteristics that the researcher set out to measure
is the phenomenon the investigator describes really what she claims to study? ex. developing an IQ test with the question "whats your shoe size?" -- no theory about shoe size related to intellect internal validity (design of study-- how careful are you at thinking of all the diff variables that can influence results?) lab experiments have high internal validity! external validity (generalizability--does this apply to real life situations?) field experiments have high external validity! |
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research designs: correlational
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looking at the relationship between variables (DOES NOT MEAN CAUSE AND EFFECT)
using the correlation coefficient called the r statistic (r=0 when no relationship, strong positive relationship r = +1, negative r= -1) moderate = .5, weak = around .3 |
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research designs: experimental
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Looking for causation
drawback: external validity is compromised manipulate independent variable to produce an effect/change in dependent variable ex. dependent variable: weight loss, independent: green tea has treatment and control groups in which individuals are randomly assigned could do matching- to have your groups as similar as possible |
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research designs: quasi-experimental (a.k.a modified experimental, natural experiments)
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taking advantage of something that is already established (ethnicity, sex) and looking for differences between groups
ex. using smoking mothers and non-smoking mothers …. can't get two groups of pregnant women and tell one group to smoke and the other to not! unethical these studies differ from correlational studies only in that groups of participants are carefully chosen to ensure that their characteristics are as much alike as possible |
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Matching
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Participants are measured ahead of time on the factor, then randomly assigned…so groups are made equivalent on characteristics that are likely to distort results
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Research designs in developmental psych: Longitudinal
What are the limitations? |
same group studied at different age points
ex. follow one group of children from birth to 4 years limitations: * biased sampling: failure to enlist participants who represent the population of interest. People who are willing to participate in research for a long time are likely to have distinctive characteristics * selective attrition: when a group of people drop out of the study * practice effects: better test taking skills and inc. familiarity with the test-- not bc of factors commonly associated with development * cohort effects: longitudinal studies examine the development of cohorts--children developing in the same time period who are influenced by particular cultural/historical conditions. Results based on one cohort may not apply to children developing at other times * super expensive to do this study but it is the one design that is truly developmental, talk about changes in ability at the individual level |
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Research designs in developmental psych: Cross-sectional
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different age groups studied at the same time…but not allowed to talk about developmental changes/assumptions at the individual level
ex. looking at group of 2 year olds and 4 year olds it doesn't matter if attrition happens, only looking at age related factors and can look at groups within themselves * cohort effects: ex. 5 year old cohorts vs. 15 year old cohorts where groups were born and reared in different years. This may not really represent age related changes |
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Research designs in developmental psych: Cohort-sequential
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combo of longitudinal/cross-sectional.
choose two groups of children of different ages and follow for a reduced period of time We can find out whether cohort effects are operating by comparing participants of the same age who were born in different years ex. follow group A (from birth to 2 years) and group B (from 2 to 4 years) |
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microgenetic design
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an adaptation of the longitudinal approach, presents children with a novel task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions
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data collection methods: observational methods
What are the limitations? |
naturalistic (watching children at WSP) vs. structured (bringing children to the lab)
event sampling: records all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period (how many times does this event occur in 10 minutes?) time sampling: records whether certain behaviors occur during a sample of short intervals (in what time period does the event occur?) limitations: observer influence and observer bias |
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data collection methods: self report methods
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(interviews, questionnaires)
clinical interview: researchers use flexible, conversational style structured interview: same set of questions in the same way |
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data collection methods: clinical method
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(various sources of data per individual)
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data collection methods: psychophysiological methods
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(hormones, brain scans)
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data collection methods: ethnographic methods
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(participant observation): researcher goes into a community like an anthropologist
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Ethics of Research
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* IRB: institutional review boards. They assess risks-versus-benefits ratio
* Need informed consent * protection from harm * privacy * knowledge of results/debriefing |
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Conception and Implantation
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Pre-embryonic/germinal period = conception and implantation
1. zygote: the resulting cell when sperm and ovum unite at fertilization 2. blastocyst: the zygote multiplies and forms a blastocyst. 3. implantation: The blastocyst implants into uterine lining. Structures that feed and protect the developing organism begin to form (amnion, chorion, placenta, umbilical cord) |
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Periods of prenatal development: zygote/germinal
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(2 weeks):
fertilization that takes place in the fallopian tube, implantation, start of placenta (permits food and oxygen to reach the developing organism and waste products to be carried away) |
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Periods of prenatal development: embryo
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6 weeks:
all the major organs develop in three layers (ectoderm develops into skin and nervous system, mesoderm develops muscles, bones, circulatory system, endoderm develops major internal organs), neural tube develops during the first week and heart starts beating, organism is most susceptible to external (this is when many miscarriages occur) |
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Periods of prenatal development: fetus
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(30 weeks): everything is in place just growing
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What are teratogens?
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environmental factors that affect prenatal development (ex. drugs, alcohol, tobacco, radiation, pollution)
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Teratogens: drugs (legal and illegal)
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* prescription/nonprescription: Regular aspirin use is linked to low birth weight, infant death around the time of birth, poorer motor development, and lower intelligence test scores in early childhood; caffeine- low birth weight and miscarriage inc
* illegal: cocaine, heroine, meth- prematurity, low birth weight, physical defects, breathing difficulties, born drug addicted |
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Teratogens: tobacco
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at high risk for behavioral problems, low birth weight, nicotine constricts blood vessels, lessens blood flow to the uterus, causes placenta to grow abnormally--> reduces transfer of nutrients
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Teratogens: alcohol
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(fetal alcohol spectrum disorder)
interferes with production/migrations of neurons to the primitive neural tube. Also, body uses large amounts of oxygen to metabolize alcohol, taking away oxygen that the developing organism needs for cell growth |
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Teratogens: radiation
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miscarriage, underdeveloped brains, slow physical growth, can inc the risk of childhood cancer
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Teratogens: pollution
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low birth weight, brain damage, physical deformities
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The damage of teratogens depends on the following factors:
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dose, heredity, other negative influences (combinations…drinking in a bar with secondhand smoke), age of developing organism at time of exposure (sensitive period: time span in which a part of the body or a behavior is biologically prepared to develop rapidly)
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Maternal factors in healthy prenatal development
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disease, nutrition, stress, age, previous births
Older age, harder to get pregnant for the first time |
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Prenatal testing
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-most common ones are ultrasound (high freq sound waves beamed at uterus) and maternal blood tests (by the second month of pregnancy, some of the baby's cells enter the maternal bloodstream)
-older women (over 35) encouraged to get amniocentesis to test for down syndrome -rare tests: chorionic villus sampling, fetoscopy, fetal blood sample --- not responsible for |
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Three stages of labor
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1. with each contraction, cervix dilates
2. delivery of the baby: with each contraction, mother pushes, forcing baby down and out 3. placenta separates from wall of uterus and is delivered |
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Post natal test: the Apgar scale
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(Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration)
done twice (immediately after birth and a while to see how they recovered) ranges from 0-10 (anything above 7 is good) |
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Birth complications
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* oxygen deprivation or anoxia; could occur during labor when infants are in breech position - buttocks or feet would be delivered first
* preterm infants: born several weeks or more before their due date * small for date infants: below expected weight |
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Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
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Humans develop within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
No tabula rasa/we construct and are constructed by our surroundings (bidirectional) Microsystem: any immediate environment that holds the child Mesosystem: relationships between the microsystems Exosystem: includes all the social settings that do not contain the child but indirectly influence the child Macrosystem: cultural contents (laws, values) Chronosystem: (these systems are not static….) changes that occur in the systems due to the movement of time ex. maturation, life events |
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What is behavioral genetics?
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study the biological influences on behavior, looking at genes + environment (shared between two individuals who are genetically connected and nonshared environments)
How much of a particular characteristic can be attributed to genes? How do genes and environment work together to shape unique behavioral characteristics of a person? |
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Phenotype and genotype
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Behavioral geneticists study the phenotype (expression of genotype in observable characteristics) and infer the genotype (genetic makeup)
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Concordance
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percentages of similarities across individuals using absence/presence of a trait/behavior
ex. concordance rate among sets of identical twins tends to be really high |
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Heritability estimates
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(used more than concordance): based on correlations and explains variance in the population
How much is the difference between individuals in a particular trait attributed to genes? to environment? ranges from 0 to 1.00 ex. if heritability estimate of liking spicy food = 1.00 --> 100% genetic |
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Kinship studies
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compare characteristics of family members, but look mostly at twins
identical, or monozygotic twins share 100% of genes fraternal, or dizygotic twins are genetically no more alike than ordinary siblings |
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What is a behavioral geneticist's favorite/best study design?
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twin/adoption combination to study twins that have been reared apart
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How do heredity and the environment work together?
Range of Reaction |
genes restrict your possible responses to a particular environment
ex. a child has an IQ of 80 (lower end). the child exposed to a super rich environment will have a different set of responses than a child with a higher IQ. |
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How do heredity and the environment work together? Canalization
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genes restrict outcomes (the behaviors are canalized)
ex. motor development is highly canalized/most kids are going to follow a time sequence of when they start to move heads/arms A behavior that is strongly canalized develops similarly in a wide range of environments Nature ensures that children will develop certain species-typical skills to promote survival |
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How do heredity and the environment work together? Gene-environment correlation
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our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed
* passive correlation: child has no say in choosing environment * evocative correlation: child is evoking responses from the environment which in turn strengthen/define those innate characteristics (ex. child is extraverted genetically and talks to more people who respond with conversation) * active/niche-picking correlation: (much more common in older ages) genes lead you to personally seek out your environment |
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Epigenetic framework
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similar to ecological theory but more focused on genetics
the individual, the environment, the genes are interrelated and constantly affect one another (the interplay!) acknowledges bidirectional exchanges |
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Newborn reflexes
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* rooting: stroke cheek near corner of mouth --> helps infant find the nipple
* swimming * palmar grasp- so strong during the first week after birth that many infants can use it to support their entire weight * moro: hold infant horizontally on back and let head drop slightly --> infant makes an "embracing" motion (infant clinging to mother) * stepping: hold infant and permit bare feet to touch a flat surface --> lifts one foot after another (forms basis for later walking). In infants who gain weight quickly after birth, stepping reflex drops bc thigh and calf muscles not strong enough to lift chubby legs |
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5 states of arousal/degrees of SLEEP and wakefulness:
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regular sleep (NREM, 8-9 hrs daily), irregular sleep (REM, helps develop CNS, 8-9 hrs), drowsiness, quiet alertness, waking activity and crying (crying is the first way that babies communicate, usually cry for physical needs)
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The leading perspective for motor development in infancy
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Dynamic systems approach: motor development is an increasingly complex systems of action with each skill
Each new skill is joint product of: • CNS development • Body’s movement capacity • Child’s goals • Environmental supports Separate abilities blend together, each cooperating with others to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment (hierarchical integration: motor skills are tiny skills combined strategically into one movement) |
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Motor developmental trends
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Gross motor development (crawling standing walking) happens before specific/fine motor development (reaching, grasping)
directions: cephalocaudal (develop from top to bottom) and proximodistal (develop control of whatever is close to the trunk of the body before the outer parts ex. controlling arms before fingers) |
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Hand Control (eye hand coordination and object manipulation
Why is it important? |
eye hand coordination: necessary for kids to reach objects, develops in two overlapping stages
1. pre-reaching: (0-3 months) the reaching is involuntary, simply extends the hand--almost reflexive 2. visually directed reaching: (3-5 months) replaces the almost-reflex. eyes must develop and observe before able to do this object manipulation: palmar grasp- reflex, not actually wanting to grasp ulnar- (4months) clumsy motion in which the baby's fingers close against the palm neat pincer - (9months-perfected at 1 year) use of thumb, fingers hand preference: at age 2 throwing and catching: until early childhood (motor development demonstrates continuous development: stepping reflexes at first…you gradually replace these reflexes with voluntary movements) Exploration to learn a great deal about sights, sounds, and feel of objects, broadening knowledge of the range of actions that can be performed on various objects Turning point from only observing to actually manipulating the environment, which is important for cognitive development |
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Posture and Locomotion
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First thing is head control - 6 weeks*
then able to roll and sit up- 6-7 months Crawling - about 7 months, important to move independently (not all children crawl--> creeping and hitching) Standing - 8 months with the help of furniture Walking - 1 year Running/climbing/jumping with two feet |
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Ways Infants Learn: classical conditioning
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learning by association
a unconditioned stimulus (breast feeding) will arouse an unconditioned response (sucking) (this is a reflexive association) pair a neutral stimulus (forehead stroking) with an unconditioned stimulus, which will evoke the unconditioned response conditioned stimulus (forehead stroking) will arouse the conditioned response (sucking) |
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Ways Infants Learn: operant conditioning
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infants act on their environment
the stimuli which follows the behavior either inc or reduces the probability reinforcer: increases probability of the behavior by presenting desirable stimulus or removing unpleasant stimulus punishment: reduces probability of the behavior by presenting an undesirable stimulus or removing pleasant stimulus Research shows that young infants’ memory for operant responses is highly context dependent. |
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Ways Infants Learn: imitation
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some suggest that early imitation is a reflex because its harder to induce this in older babies
but especially after 18-24 months (able to form memories), capacity to imitate improves and becomes a powerful learning tool Mirror neurons: fire identically when a primate hears or sees an action and when it carries out that action on its own studies of newborn imitation are controversial, with some finding that imitation is a voluntary capacity and others suggesting that it is an automatic response that declines with age. |
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Ways Infants Learn: habituation
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boring the child! mostly used in research, relies on the infant's love for novelty
1. habituation phase: accustomed to a novel stimulus with repetitive stimulation physiological change with habituation - pupils not enlarged, heart rate reduced 2. immediate test phase: flashing new stimulus, recovery: return to the excited physiological response when a new stimulus appears showing novelty preference 3. delayed test phase: infants show familiarity preference and recover to the familiar stimulus speed of habituation and recovery are among the best early predictors of intelligence in later years assesses memory as well as quickness and flexibility of thinking |
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Growth curve: distance
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(plots avg size of sample children eat each age, indicates yearly progress)
• Parallel growth until age 10. • From age 10-14, girls surpass boys. • Around age 14, boys surpass girls in height. |
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Growth curve: velocity
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(plots avg amount of growth at each yearly interval)
lots of growth during infancy growth slows down during early childhood lots of growth during puberty |
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Early, middle, late phases of adolescence
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11-12: rapid pubertal change, greatest physical growth
14-16: puberty nearly complete 16-18: full adult appearance; anticipation of adult roles |
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what is puberty?
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marks the beginning of adolescence, and thus the transition into adulthood
(but actually some hormonal changes occur at 8-9 yr old) |
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Conceptions of adolescence
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Biological perspective: your biology (hormonal changes) determines your psychology
social perspective: social and cultural influences determine the psychology (ex. sexuality is more repressed in certain countries --> more stress during adolescence) (girls with a history of family conflict tend to reach puberty earlier) Balanced POV: both determine psychology (part of the intensity of adolescence is because of the brain... like being more susceptible to dopamine) |
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Puberty: Body growth (differences in sex)
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Boys:
growth spurt starts age 13-14 shoulders broaden, longer legs gain more muscle, aerobic efficiency Girls: growth spurt starts age 10-11 hips broaden gain more fat |
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Puberty: Sexual development
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- Primary characteristic: Maturation of reproductive organs:
Menarche: first menstruation Spermache: first ejaculation - Secondary: Other visible parts of the body that signal sexual maturity breasts/facial hair, voice change/underarm and pubic hair first sign of puberty in boys is the enlargement of the testes |
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Puberty: socio-emotional changes
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* Inc in moodiness (yes, part of hormonal changes + more negative life events, stronger responses to events, and susceptibility to situational changes)
* Inc in peer contact, dec in parent contact (psychological distancing from parents to learn how to make your own decisions, different views of teen readiness for responsibility-- ex. ready to have sex? parents and adolescent disagree |
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Differences in timing of puberty/factors affecting physical growth
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* heredity: height and rate of physical growth
* nutrition and exercise (ex. body fat in girls can actually affect the age of menarche) * geographical location (nutrition) * SES (nutrition) * ethnicity (nutrition) * family experiences might contribute (ex. stressful situations might lead to earlier sexual maturation) |
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Consequences of timing of puberty:
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Girls who mature earlier fare worse than girls who mature later --> sexualized earlier, preference for skinner body type
Opposite for boys --> better at sports, more manly |
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Eating disorders
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girls who reach puberty early and dissatisfied with body image are at high risk for eating disorders
anorexia: starve themselves in fear of getting fat bulimia: strict diet and exercise, binge and purge binge eating: compulsively eats, but does not purge, usually leading to obesity |
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Sex differences in gross motor development
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Early and middle childhood:
Sex differences in athletic skills remain small during childhood and are largely due to social influences Adolescence: girls gain in gross motor performance are slow and gradual, leveling off by 14 boys show dramatic spurt in strength, speed, endurance |
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Coming out process of gay youth
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* Feeling different from other children (ex. play interests were more like those of the other gender); around age 10 begin sexual questioning
* Confusion: (during adolescence) inner struggle, deep sense of isolation intensified by lack of role models and social support * Self acceptance: (by the end of adolescence) but don't know to come out? Usually tell trusted friends first, then to parents |
