Developmental Key Terms

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Behaviorism

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is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling — can and should be regarded as behaviors.[1] The school of psychology maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind.

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Contexts

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Unique combination of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of development

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Discontinuous Development

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the view that development is a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times

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Ethology

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an approach concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history

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Exosystem

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nvolves links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context. For example, a husband's or child's experience at home may be influenced by a mother's experiences at work. The mother might receive a promotion that requires more travel, which might increase conflict with the husband and change patterns of interaction with the child.

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macrosystem

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Describes the culture in which individuals live. Cultural contexts include developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity.

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meosystem

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Refers to relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. Examples are the relation of family experiences to school experiences, school experiences to church experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences. For example, children whose parents have rejected them may have difficulty developing positive relations with teachers.

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nature-nurture

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debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature", i.e. nativism, or innatism) versus personal experiences ("nurture", i.e. empiricism or behaviorism) in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits.

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normative approach

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an approach in which measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals and age related averages are computed to represent typical development

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sensitive period

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a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences

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stage

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a qualitative change in thinking feeling and behaving that characterizes a certain period of development

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collectivist society

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society where people emphasize the group over the individual, and strive toward individual goals

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continuous development

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the view that development is the process of gradually adding more of the same type of skills gradually

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ecological systems theory

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Bronfenbrenners approach which views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding enviroment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cutural values and programs

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evolutionary developmental psychology

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an approach that seeks to understand the addaptive value of species wide cognitive emotional and competencies as those competencies change with age

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individualistic society

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societies where people think for themselves and are largely concerned with their own personal needs

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maturation

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a genetically determined natural force of growth

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microsystem

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The setting in which the individual lives. These contexts include the person's family, peers, school, and neighborhood. It is in the microsystem that the most direct interactions with social agents take place; with parents, peers, and teachers, for example. The individual is not a passive recipient of experiences in these settings, but someone who helps to construct the settings.

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noble savage

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roussous view of a child with the natural sense of right and wrong and innate plan for orderly growth

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resiliency

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the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development

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social learning theory

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a theory that supports observational learning or mimicking of peers, in the development of behavior, or modeling thoughts is known as social cognitive theory

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tabula rasa

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John Locke that individuals are born without built-in mental content and that their knowledge comes from experience and perception.

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cohort effects

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the effects of cultural historical change on the accuracy of longitudinal and cross sectional findings. Results based on one cohort-- children developing in th same time period who are influenced by particular cultural and historical conditions-- may not apply to other cohorts

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cross sectional design

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form a class of research methods that involve observation of some subset of a population of items all at the same time, in which, groups can be compared at different ages with respect of independent variables, such as IQ and memory

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experimental design

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is the design of any information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not. However, in statistics, these terms are usually used for controlled experiments.

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independent variable

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The independent variable is typically the variable being manipulated or changed

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dependent variable

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dependent variable is the observed result of the independent variable being manipulated.

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Naturalistic observation

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is a method of observation, commonly used by psychologists, behavioral scientists and social scientists, that involves observing subjects in their natural habitats

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Observer influence

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In the social sciences, the observer's paradox refers to phenomena where the observation of an event or experiment is influenced by the presence of the observer/investigator.

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protection from harm

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the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

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Reliability

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The consistency or repeatability of measures of behavior

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correlational design

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a research desing in which a researcher gathers information on individuals without changing their experiences and then examines the relationships between participants characteristics and their behavior or development. does not permit inferences about cause and effect

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hypothesis

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is a proposed explanation for an observable phenomenon

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longitudinal design

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is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time — often many decades. It is a type of observational study. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations.

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observer bias

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is a form of reactivity, in which a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to unconsciously influence the participants of an experiment

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practice effects

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Practice effects occur when a participant in an experiment is able to perform a task and then perform it again at some later time. Generally, they either have a positive (subjects become better at performing the task) or negative (subjects become worse at performing the task) effect.

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random assignment

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is an experimental technique for assigning subjects to different treatments (or no treatment).

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validity

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how accurate the statistical analysis is

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Age of viability

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fetus life The age of viability has been receding because of continued medical progress. Whereas it used to be 28 weeks, it has been brought back to as early as 23, or even 22 weeks in some countries.

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concordance rate

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, the presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins

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Fetal alcohol syndrome

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is a disorder that can affect the embryo when a pregnant woman ingests any amount of alcohol during pregnancy. The ingestion of alcohol does not always result in FAS, but no amount of alcohol whatsoever is proven safe for consumption during pregnancy.

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fraternal or dizygotic twins

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usually occur when two fertilized eggs are implanted in the uterine wall at the same time. When two eggs are independently fertilized by two different sperm cells, DZ twins result. The two eggs, or ova, form two zygotes, hence the terms dizygotic and biovular.

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genotype

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is the genetic constitution of a cell, an organism, or an individual (i.e. the specific allele makeup of the individual) usually with reference to a specific character under consideration

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Identical twin

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, occur when a single egg is fertilized to form one zygote (monozygotic) which then divides into two separate embryos.

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kinship studies

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studies comparing the characteristics of family members to estimate the importance of heredity in complex human characteristics

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niche-picking

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a type of genetic environmental correlation in which individuals actively choose environments that compliment their heredity

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preterm

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efers to the birth of a baby of less than 37 weeks gestational age. Premature birth, commonly used as a synonym for preterm birth, refers to the birth of a premature infant.

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teratogen

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s the study of abnormalities of physiological development. It is often thought of as the study of birth defects, but it is much broader than that, taking in other developmental stages, such as puberty; and other life forms, such as plants.

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chromosomes

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s an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cells.

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dominant-recessive inheritance

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nheritance of traits for humans are based upon Gregor Mendel's model of inheritance. Mendel deduced that inheritance depends upon discrete units of inheritance, called factors or genes

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fetus

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is a developing mammal or other viviparous vertebrate after the embryonic stage and before birth.

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gene

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a unit of heredity in a living organism. It is normally a stretch of DNA that codes for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism.

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heritability estimate

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is the proportion of phenotypic variation in a population that is attributable to genetic variation among individuals

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infant mortality

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is defined as the number of infant deaths (one year of age or younger) per 1000 live births. The most common cause worldwide has traditionally been due to dehydration from diarrhea.

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natural or prepared child birth

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is a philosophy of childbirth that is based on the notion that women who are adequately prepared are innately able to give birth to their child, without external intervention

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phenotype

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is any observable characteristic or trait of an organism: such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behavior.

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small for date

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babies whos birth weight is below normal

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zygote

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s the initial cell formed when a new organism is produced by means of sexual reproduction.

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Cephalocaudal trend

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The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows more than the body. It is also the trend of infants learning to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs.

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Conditioned response

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s a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.[1] The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance.

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extinction

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is the psychological phenomenon in which the probability of a response is reduced when a reinforcing stimulus ceases to be presented. In classical conditioning, this concerns the reduction in a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus repeatedly occurs without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired.

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Operant conditioning

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is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behavior.

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Rapid-eye-movement sleep

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is a normal stage of sleep characterized by the rapid movement of the eyes. REM sleep is classified into two categories: tonic and phasic

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Reinforcer

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is a term in operant conditioning and behavior analysis for the delivery of a stimulus, (immediately or shortly) after a response, that results in an increase in the future rate or probability of that response

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Unconditioned response

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an innate response

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Mirror neurons

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s a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another.

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Classical conditioning

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a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.[1] The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance

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Conditioned stimulus

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a trained response

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Habituation

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s a form of nonassociative learning. It is the psychological process in humans and animals in which there is a decrease in psychological response and behavioral response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to that stimulus over a duration of time.

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Proximodistal trend

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is the prenatal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards. When referring to motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from the center of the body outwards.

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Reflex

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s an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.[1] In most contexts, in particular those involving humans, reflex actions are mediated via the reflex arc; this is not always true in other animals, nor does it apply to casual uses of the term 'reflex'.

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Sudden infant death syndrome

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is a syndrome marked by the sudden death of an infant that is unexpected by history and remains unexplained after a thorough forensic autopsy and a detailed death scene investigation.

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Unconditioned stimulus

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(US - meat powder in this example

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Body image

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is a term which may refer to a person's perception of his or her own physical appearance, or the interpretation of the body by the brain.

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Growth hormone

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is a protein-based poly-peptide hormone. It stimulates growth and cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals.

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Kwashiorkor

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s an acute form of childhood protein-energy malnutrition characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates.

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Menarche

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s the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual bleeding, in female human beings

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Obesity

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is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems

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Psychosocial dwarfism

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is a growth disorder that is observed between the ages of 2 and 15, caused by extreme emotional deprivation or stress.

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Secondary sex characteristics

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are features that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system. They are believed to be the product of sexual selection for traits which give an individual an advantage over its rivals in courtship and aggressive interactions

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Skeletal age

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is a way of describing the degree of maturation of a child's bones. As a person grows from fetal life through childhood, puberty, and finishes growth as a young adult, the bones of the skeleton change in size and shape.

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Catch-up growth

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Catch up growth is rapid growth in infants or young children who were born small for their gestational age or who had a health problem severe enough to prevent normal growth for a period of time. Catch up growth usually occurs before age 2 and may include any or all of the following: rapid weight gain, rapid gain in height, rapid gain in head circumference.

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Hypothalamus

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is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

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Marasmus

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is a form of severe protein-energy malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency.
A child with marasmus looks emaciated. Body weight may be reduced to less than 80% of the normal weight for that height.[citation needed] Marasmus occurrence increases prior to age 1, whereas kwashiorkor occurrence increases after 18 months.

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Nonorganic failure to thrive

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Causes can include having a mother with postpartum depression. Both neglect and hypervigilance can cause failure to thrive

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Primary sexual characteristics

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as narrowly defined, is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute the reproductive system in a complex organism;

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Puberty

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is the process of physical changes by which a child's body becomes an adult body capable of reproduction.

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Secular trend

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Changes of size and body growth from one generation to the next

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Spermarche

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The first ejaculatory experience of boys

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Accommodation

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Piaget's theory that part of adaptation iin which new schemes are created or old ones are adjusted to produce better fit for the enviroment. distinguish from assimilation.

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Assimilation

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the part of adaptation in which the external world is interpreted in terms of current schemes

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Piaget’s 4 stages

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According to Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring equilibrium in the relations between the person and the environment. This is achieved through the actions of the developing person on the world. At any moment in development, the environment is assimilated in the schemes of action that are already available and these schemes are transformed or accommodated to the peculiarities of the objects of the environment, if they are not completely appropriate. Thus, the development of intelligence is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations that lead to increasing expansion of the field of application of schemes, increasing coordination between them, increasing interiorization, and increasing abstraction.

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Sensorimotor period

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is the first of the four stages of cognitive development. "In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions

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Preoperational Period

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The Preoperative stage is the second of four stages of cognitive development.[5] By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs. though not completely logical yet

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Concrete operational stage

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is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years[8] and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic.

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Formal operational stage

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The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in Piaget's theory.[9] This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood.[9] In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.

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Constructivist approach

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is a theory of knowledge (epistemology) [1] which argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from their experiences.

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Equilibration

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in piaget's theory the back and forth movement between equilibrium and disequilibrium that produces more effective schemes

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Hypothetico-deductive reasoning

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a formal operational problem-solving strategy that begins with a hypothesis, from which logical inferences can be deduced and then tested by systematically isolating and combining variables

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Goal-directed behavior

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is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself.

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Mental representationan

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internal depiction of information that the mind can manipulate including images and concepts

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Operations

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In piaget's theory mental representations of actions that obey logical rules

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Reversibility

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the ability to go through a seris of steps in a problem and them mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point. In piaget's theory part of every logical operation

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Scheme

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In piaget's theory specific psychological structures or organized ways of making sense of experience that change with age

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Zone of proximal development

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is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept developed by Belarusian psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934).

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Adaptation

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in piaget's theory the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the enviroment. consits of assimilation and accomadation

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Centration

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is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others. A term introduced by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) to refer to the tendency of young children to focus attention on only one salient aspect of an object, situation, or problem at a time, to the exclusion of other potentially relevant aspects.

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Conservation

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refers to an ability in logical thinking according to the psychologist Jean Piaget who developed four stages in cognitive development. During the third stage, the Concrete operational stage, the child of age 7-11 masters this ability, to logically determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size.

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Egocentrism

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* the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world, including other people and
* the tendency to perceive, understand and interpret the world in terms of the self.

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Imaginary audience

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refers to an egocentric state where an individual imagines and believes that multitudes of people are enthusiastically listening to him or her at all times. Though this state is often exhibited in young adolescence, people of any age may harbor a belief in an imaginary audience.

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Make-believe play

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a type of play where children act out everyday and imaginary activities

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Object permanence

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is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Jean Piaget argued that object permanence is one of an infant's most important accomplishments, as without this concept, objects would have no separate, permanent existence.

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Personal fable

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is term coined by David Elkind (1967) that is used in psychology to describe a form of egocentrism normally exhibited during early adolescence, and it is characterized by an over-differentiating of one's experiences and feelings from others to the point of assuming those experiences are unique from those of others.

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scaffolding

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adjusting the assistance offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance. As competence increases the adult gradually and sensitivly withdraws support, turning responsibility over to the child

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Violation of expectation method

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a method in which researchers show babies an expected event (one that follows physical laws) and an unexpected event ( a variation of the first that violates physical laws). Heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is supprised by a deviation from physical reality and, therefore, is aware of that aspect of the physical world.

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Convergent thinking

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is a term coined by Joy Paul Guilford as the opposite of divergent thinking. It generally means the ability to give the correct answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity, for instance in most tasks in school and on standardized multiple-choice tests for intelligence.

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Crystallized intelligence

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is the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience. It should not be equated with memory or knowledge, but it does rely on accessing information from long-term memory. The terms are somewhat misleading because one is not a "crystallized" form of the other. Rather, they are believed to be separate neural and mental systems.

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Fluid intelligence

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telligence is the ability to find meaning in confusion and solve new problems. It is the ability to draw inferences and understand the relationships of various concepts, independent of acquired knowledge.

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Emotional intelligence

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escribes the ability, capacity, skill or, in the case of the trait EI model, a self-perceived grand ability to identify, assess, manage and control the emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups.

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Factor analysis

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is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. In other words, it is possible, for example, that two or three observed variables together represent another, unobserved variable, and factor analysis searches for these possible combinations. used to determine if intellegence is one trait or an assortment

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General factor or “g”

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is a controversial construct used in the field of psychology (see also psychometrics) to quantify what is common to the scores of all intelligence tests. It was postulated in 1904 by Charles Spearman and subsequently developed into a theory in 1923.

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Practical intelligence

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mental abilities apparent in the real world, but not in testing situations

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Psychometric approach

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Despite the variety of concepts of intelligence, the approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters and published research over the longest period of time is based on psychometrics testing. Such intelligence quotient (IQ) tests include the Stanford-Binet, Raven's Progressive Matrices, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children.

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Specific factor or “s”

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a mental ability that is unique to a test item

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Wechsler Intelligence Scale

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tests are the primary clinical instruments used to measure adult and adolescent intelligence.[1] The original WAIS (Form I) was published in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale * Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)
* Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
* Working Memory Index (WMI)
* Processing Speed Index (PSI)

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Creativity

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s a mental process involving the discovery of new ideas or concepts, or new associations of the existing ideas or concepts, fueled by the process of either conscious or unconscious insight.

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Divergent thinking

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is a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

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Environmental cumulative deficit hypothesis

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the view that negative effects of underprivledged rearing techniques increase the longer the children are in them, making early cognitive deficits harder to overcome

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Intelligence quotient

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s a score derived from one of several different standardized tests designed to assess intelligence. The term "IQ", from the German Intelligenz-Quotient, was devised by the German psychologist William Stern in 1912[1] as a proposed method of scoring children's intelligence tests such as those developed by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in the early 20th Century.[2]

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Project Head Start

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is a program of the United States Department of Health and Human Services that provides comprehensive education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families. Head Start began in 1965[1] and was later updated by the Head Start Act of 1981.

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Socioeconomic status

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is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family’s economic and social position relative to others, based on income, education, and occupation.

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Stanford-Binet Intelligence

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initiated the modern field of intelligence testing. The Stanford-Binet test started with the French psychologist Alfred Binet, whom the French government commissioned with developing a method of identifying intellectually deficient children for their placement in special education programs. As Binet indicated, case studies might be more detailed and helpful, but the time required to test many people would be excessive.

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Babbling

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is a stage in child and a state in language acquisition, during which an infant appears to be experimenting with uttering sounds of language, but not yet producing any recognizable words. Babbling begins at approximately 5 to 7 months of age

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Cooing

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vowel like sounds made by babies at around 2 months

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Grammar

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is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language.

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Language acquisition device

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is a postulated "organ" of the brain that is supposed to function as a congenital device for learning symbolic language (i.e., language acquisition).

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Phoneme

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is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances

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Pragmatics

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is a subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning.

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Protoimperative

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a preverbal communicative gesture in which the baby gets another person to do somthing by reaching pointing and often making sounds at the same time

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Sematics

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is the study of meaning, usually in language.

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Underextension

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taking a general word and applying it specifically (for example, 'blankie')

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Overextension

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taking a specific word and applying it too generally (example, 'car' for 'van').

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Child-directed speech

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is a nonstandard form of speech used by adults in talking to toddlers and infants.

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Fast-mapping

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is a hypothesized mental process whereby a new concept can be learned (or a new hypothesis formed) based only on a single exposure to a given unit of information.

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Illocutionary intent

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At ages 3–5, children can master illocutionary intent, knowing what you meant to say even though you might not have said it and turnabout, which is turning the conversation over to another person.

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Phonology

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is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use.

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Protodeclarative

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gesture that a baby makes when pointing to an object while looking at another person to make sure they notice

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Semantic bootstrapping

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in linguistics refers to the hypothesis that children utilize conceptual knowledge to create grammatical categories when acquiring their first language. Thus, for example, categories like "type of object/person" maps directly onto the linguistic category "noun", category like "action" onto "verb", etc. This will get children started on their way to acquiring parts of speech, which later can be supplemented by other linguistic information.

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Telegraphic speech

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is speech during the two-word stage of language acquisition in children, which is laconic and efficient.