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107 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Photosynthesis
Process by which plants convert CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates.

Sunlight is harnessed by chlorophyll to drive this reaction.
All living things are composed primarily of what elements?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus.
Protoplasm
Substance of life.
Organic compounds
Made by living systems and contain carbon. Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Inorganic compounds
Compounds that do not contain the element carbon including salts and HCl.
Carbohydrates
Composed of elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen in 1:2:1 ratio.

Are used as storage forms of energy or as structural molecules.

Starch stores energy in plants.

Glucose and glycogen store energy in animals.
Monosaccharides
e.g. glucuse and fructose are single sugar subunits.

galactose and mannose are also monosaccharides.
Disaccharide
Maltose and sucrose.

Composed of two monosaccharide subunits joined by dehydration synthesis which involves loss of water molecule.
Polysaccharide
Polymers or chains of repeating monosaccharide subunits. Glycogen and starch are polysaccharides.

Cellulose is poly that serves a structural role in plants. These poly are insoluble in water.
Dehydration and Hydrolysis
Polysaccharides are formed by removing water (dehydration).

Adding water to large polymers breaks them down into smaller units (hydrolysis).
Lipids (Fats and Oils)
Like carbohydrates, lipids are also composed of C, H, and O, but their H:O ratio is much greater 2:1 (much more H).

Lipid consists of 3 fatty acid molecules bonded to a single glycerol backbone.

Three hydration reactions are needed to form one fat molecule. Do NOT form polymers.
Location of Electron Transport Chain
Inner mitochondrial membrane
Location of Glycolysis
Cytosol of the cell
Location of Krebs cycle
Mitochondrial matrix
What is the equation for the Percentage of Original DNA after rounds of replication?
(1/2)^n x 100 = % left

e.g. after 4 rounds of replication

(1/2)(1/2)(1/2)(1/2) = 1/16 = 0.0625 x 100 = 6.25%
Characteristics of Prokaryote
Single celled, cell wall made of peptidoglycans
In a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of the dominant allele D is three times that of the recessive allele d. What is the frequency of heterozygotes in the population?
Answer: 37.5%

Solution:
Hardy-Weinberg eqn:

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

p + q = 1

p = 3q

3q + q = 1; q = 0.25
therefore p = 0.75

substitute into 2pq =
2 (0.25)(0.75) = 0.375 x 100 = 37.5%
Endoderm
Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula.

It forms the epithelial lining digestive tube, liver and pancreas, the epithelium of the auditory tube and tympanic cavity, of the lungs, of the urinary bladder and part of the urethra, and that which lines the follicles of the thyroid gland and thymus.
Mesoderm
Forms bones, most of the circulatory system, connective tissues of the gut and integuments (muscle), reproductive system, urinary system, including the kidneys
Ectoderm
ectoderm differentiates to form the nervous system, epidermis, and the outer part of integument.
10 turns of the Calvin Cycle will produce
a. 10 CO2
b. 20 PGAL
c. 20 RBP
d. 36 ATP
e. 5 glucose
B. 20 PGAL
Disruptive Selection
Natural selection that favor variants of both phenotypic extremes over the intermediate phenotypes.
What region controls the breathing rate?
Medulla oblangata via the phrenic nerve
Which of the following is an example of a fixed action pattern?

a. startle response
b. removing your hand from a hot stove
c. circardian rhythms
d. characteristic movement of herd animals
e. none of the above
d. characteristic movement of herd animals

startle response = Complex reflex pattern
Removing your hand = simple reflex, controlled at spinal cord
circadian rhythms = behavior cycle
Which part of the flower produces monoploid cells which develop into pollen grains?

a. style
b. petal
c. sepal
d. anther
e. stigma
d. anther
Which of the following is an example of a pioneer organism?

a. lichens
b. mosses
c. ferns
d. annual grasses
e. birches
a. lichens

first growers
Which region of the kidney has the lowest solute concentration?

a. nephron
b. cortex
c. medulla
d. pelvis
e. epithelia
b. cortex

pelvis and medulla have high concentration gradient (pelvis is in medulla)
Which metal is complexed to chlorophyll?
magnesium
Which one of the following elements has the largest second ionization energy?

a. Mg
b. Ca
c. Sr
d. Rb
D. Rb

The second ionization energy is the energy needed to remove a second electron from an already positively charged ion. In other words, for the process:

X+ --> X^2+ + e-

Delta E is the second ionization energy of the element x. An element with a high second ionization energy, then, would have a cation with a very stable electron configuration. If X+ has an electron configuration similar to a noble gas, then X will have a high second ionization energy. Rb is the one in the first column, the first ionization energy would make it a noble gas.
What is the molecular geometry of PH2Cl?
Trigonal pyramid
A rigid container holds 3.00 moles of an ideal gas at 298K. How many moles of gas would be needed to be added to the container at constant T to increase the pressure from 1.00 atm to 1.8 atm?
Answer: 2.4 moles

P1/N1 = P2/N2

P1 = 1 atm
P2 = 1.8 atm
N1 = 3.00 moles
N2 = ?

N2 = (P2 x N1)/(P1) = 5.4 mol

5.4 mol (total) - 3.00 moles = 2.4 moles
Which of the following could be the correct electron configuration for the ground state neutral atom of a nonmetallic element?
Nonmetallic elements are found in the right of the periodic table, and if neutral, will always have valence electrons in the p subshell, which can hold a maximum of 6 electrons.
Nitrogen and resonance
Nitrogen is in the second period and hence its valence shell does not have a d subshell. It cannot expand its octed and can form nor more than four bonds. Pick a structure in resonance form where nitrogen forms no more than 4 bonds.
Characteristics of a polar molecule
1. Must contain polar bonds (bonds formed between elements of different electronegativity, in which electron density is not shared equally).
2. dipole moments carried by these polar bonds must NOT cancel vectorially.
Homologous structures
SIMILAR structure
SAME origin

But DIFFERENT function.
Analagous Structures
SIMILAR structure
DIFFERENT origin
Ascaris
Is a genus of Parasitic NEMATODE worms.
Turbatrix
Free-living NEMATODES
Characteristics of Nematodes (Roundworms)
1. Possess long digestive tubes and an anus.
2. Solid mesoderm present
3. CLOSED circulatory systems
4. Possess nerve cords and an anterior nerve ring.
Characteristics of Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
1. Are ribbonlike
2. Bilaterally symmetrical
3. Possess three layers of cells including a solid mesoderm
4. Do NOT have circulatory systems and their nervous system consists of eyes, an anterior brain ganglion
5. Pair of longitudinal nerve cords.
Characteristics of Annelida (Segmented worms)
1. Possess a COELOM contained in a mesoderm
2. Well defined systems including nervous, circulatory, and excretory systems (e.g. earthworms).
Characteristics of Mollusca
1. Softbodied
2. Possess mantles which often secrete calcareous (calcium carbonate) exoskeletons.
3. Breathe by gills and contain chambered hearts, blood sinuses, and a pair of ventral nerve cords (e.g. clams, snails, and squid).
Characteristics of a Desert Biome
1. Receive less than ten inches of rain each year
2. Growing season is restricted to those days of rainfall.
3. Small plants and animals
4. Animals in burrows and cacti.

e.g. Sahara and Gobi Deserts
Grassland Biome
1. Low rainfall (10-30 inches)
2. Provide no shelter for herbivorous mammals from carnivorous predators.
3. Animals have long legs and hoofed.

e.g. Rockies, Pampas, and Steppes
Tropical Deciduous Forest Biome
1. Cold winters, warm summers, and moderate rainfall.
2. Trees such as beech, maple, oaks, and willows
3. Animals include deer, fox, woodchuck, and squirrel.

e.g. Northeast and Central-Eastern U.S.
Temperate Coniferous Forest Biome
1. Forests are cold, dry, and inhabited by fir, pine, spruce.
2. Much of vegetation evolved for water conservation such as needle-shaped leaves.

e.g. Northern part of U.S.
Taiga Biome
1. Receive less rainfall than temperate forests.
2. Have long cold winters
3. Inhabited by a single coniferous tree: the spruce.
4. Forest floors in Taiga contain moss and lichens.
5. Chief animal: moose, black bear, wolf and some birds.

e.g Northern Canada and Russia
Tundra Biome
1. Treeless, frozen plain found between Taiga lands and Northern ice sheets.
2. Very short summer and short growing season
3. Lichens, moss, polar bears, musk oxen, and arctic hens.
Characteristics of the Polar Region Biome
1. Frozen area with NO vegetation and terrestrial animals
2. Animals that do inhabit generally live near polar oceans.
Characteristics of Littoral Zone
Region on the continental shelf which contains ocean area with depths up to 600 feet and extends several hundred miles away from shores.

Populations include algae, crabs, crustacea, and fish.

Between Intertidal and Pelagic Zone.
Pelagic Zone
Typical of open seas and can be divided into photic and aphotic zones.
Intertidal Zone
Region exposed at low tides which undergoes variations in temperature and periods of dryness.

Populations include sponges, clams, snails, sea urchins, starfish, crab, algae.
Total Energy Production of Substrate Level Phosphorylation
1 glucose --> 2 ATP (glycolysis) + 1 ATP (each turn of Citric acid cycle) =
----------------
Total = 4 ATP
Total Energy Production of Oxidative Phosphorylation
2 Pyruvate Decarboxylations --> 1 NADH = 2 NADH total

Each turn of citric acid cycle = 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 = 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 per glucose molecule.

FADH2 = 2 ATP
NADH = 3 ATP

2 NADH (glycolysis) = 4 ATP
8 NADH = 24 ATP
2 FADH2 = 4 ATP
----------------
Total = 32 ATP
Chaparral Biome
1. Shrubland or heathland plant community found primarily in U.S. California.
2. Mediterranean climate (mild, wet winters, and hot dry summers) and wildfire
3. Plants: densely-growing evergreen scrub oaks and other drought-resistant shrubs.
Glucose and fructose are examples of?
Monosaccharides
When a protein structure denatures, what happens?
It loses its secondary and tertiary structure.
According to the induced fit hypothesis of enzymes, what happens?
The binding of the substrate changes the shape of the enzyme slightly.
If a eukaryotic cell has a diameter that is 10 times that of a bacterial cell, proportionally how much more surface area would the eukaryotic cell have?
100 times the surface area.

Metabolic requirements impose upper limits on the size that is practical for a single cell. Area is proportional to the linear dimensioned cubed.
Functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
1. Phospholipid synthesis
2. Steroid synthesis
3. Sex hormone synthesis
4. Detoxification of drugs.

(synthesis of fatty acids, steroids, phospholipids and other lipids)
Functions of the rough ER
mainly protein producing and rough due to ribosomes. It makes secretory proteins.
Movement of cellular material from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration is known as....
Active transport

Which needs energy
What do muscle cells during oxygen deprivation gain from the conversion of pyruvate?
NAD+ and lactate

In reference to a muscle cell, pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis, serves as an electron acceptor for oxidizing NADH back to NAD+.

The NAD+ can then be reused to oxidize sugar during glycolysis which yields two net molecules of ATP by SLP.

Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form LACTATE as a waste product.

Therefore, a human muscle cell can gain or make ATP by lactic acid fermentation when oxygen is scarce.

ATP, NAD+, and lactate are gained by the muscle cell.
In glucose degradation, which of the following is true?

I. Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons.
II. Water is the final acceptor of electrons
III. Oxygen is NOT necessary for ATP synthesis
IV. Water is not produced
I and III are true.

Oxygen is final acceptor of electrons and Oxygen is not necessary for ATP synthesis.

Cellular respiration is cumulative function of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport. And combines oxygen and hydrogen ions to FORM water.
Parthenogenesis
Development of an unfertilized egg into an adult
Spermatogenesis occurs where?
Spermatogenesis occurs in the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES of the testes.

Female counterpart occurs in OVARIES.
Female Reproductive parts of plants
Stigma, Style, Pistil, Ovules
Aneupoloidy
Result of nondisjunction in which the members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not move apart properly during meiosis I, or in which sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II.
Translation of mRNA occurs primarily at the....?
Ribosomes
Embryological origin of the epithelial linings of the digestive tract is characteristic of which embryogenic germ layer?
Endoderm

Also, liver and pancreas arise from endoderm.
Which of the following have open circulatory systems?

a. cnidarians
b. hydras
c. jelly fish
d. snails
e. b and c
D. snails

Hydras, cnidarians, and jelly fish do not need a specialized system for internal transport.

However, a gastrovascular cavity is inadequate for internal transport within animals having many layers, especially if the animals live out of the water.

In insects, or other arthropods, and most mollusks, blood bathes internal organs directly. This is called an open circulatory system.
Which of the following invertebrates exhibit a hydrostatic skeleton?

a. planaria
b. annelids
c. anthropods
d. snails.
e. A and B and D
E. a, b, and d

A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment. This is the main type of skeleton in most cnidarians, flatworms (planarians), nematodes, annelids, and snails.
Respiration in:

Cnidarians (Protozoa or hydra)
Annelids
Arthropods
Cnidarians (Protozoa or hydra)
- Simple Diffusion
- Every cell is in contact with the external environment

Annelids
- Diffusion
- Mucus secreted by cells on the external surface of the earthworm's body provides a moist surface for gaseous exchange (O2 to cells, and CO2 excretion).

Arthropods
- Open circulatory system
- Consists of respiratory tubules called tracheae whose branches reach to almost every cell. (open to surface openings called spiracles).
- No carrier of oxygen is needed
Characteristics of Arthropods
(Circulatory, Nervous, Respiration, Locomotion, Digestion, and Excretion)
1. Circulatory: OPEN circulatory systems (sinuses)

2. Nervous: Central Nervous System (defined ventral nerve cord/anterior brain fused ganglia)

3. Respiration: Series of respiratory tubules called TRACHEAE open to tubes called SPIRACLES (NO O2 needed)

4. Locomotion/Muscle: EXOSKELETON (have chitin)

5. Digestion: ONE-WAY digestive tract with mouth and anus. (Soluble food passes by diffusion through small intestine into blood).

6. Excretion: Use TRACHEAE, which is continuous with external air through openings called SPIRACLES. Nitrogenous wastes are excreted in form of URIC ACID CRYSTALS. Mineral salts and uric acid accumulate in MALPHIGIAN TUBULES (intestine)
Characteristics of Annelids (Circulatory, Nervous, Respiration, Locomotion, Digestion, and Excretion)
1. Circulatory: CLOSED circulatory system. (aortic loops)

2. Nervous: Central Nervous System (defined ventral nerve cord/anterior brain fused ganglia)

3. Respiration: MUCUS secreted by cells on external surface for gas exchange (CO2 out and O2 in)

4. Locomotion/Muscle: HYDROSTATIC Skeletons and SETAE (segmented worms)

5. Digestion: ONE-WAY digestive tract with mouth and anus. (Soluble food passes by diffusion through small intestine into blood).

6. Excretion: Earthworms, CO2 excreted through moist skin. Use NEPHRIDIA and excrete water, mineral salts, and nitrogenous wastes in form of UREA.
Habituation
Is a very simple type of learning that involves a loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli that do not provide appropriate feedback.
Imprinting
Case where learning interacts closely with innate behavior.

e.g. The bond between mother and child is extremely important in first few moments after birth.
Classical Conditioning
Or Pavlovian conditioning involves the association of a normally autonomic or visceral response with an environment stimulus. or called "conditioned reflex"
Positive reinforcement
or REWARD includes providing food, light, or electrical stimulation of the animal's brain "pleasure centers".

Animal is more likely to repeat the desired behavioral response.
Negative reinforcement
Also involves stimulating the brain's pleasure centers.

But in contrast with positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement links the LACK of certain behavior with reward.

e.g. A bird may learn that it will receive a food pellet if it does not peck on a yellow circle in its cage.
Punishment
Involves conditioning an organisms so that it will STOP exhibiting a given behavior pattern.
Extinction
Gradual elimination of conditioned responses in the absence of reinforcement
The first genetic material was most likely..

a. protein enzyme
b. protein
c. DNA oligonucleotide
d. RNA polymer
e. DNA polmer
d. RNA polymer

The first genes were not DNA molecules but short strands of RNA that began self-replicating in the prebiotic world
Natural selection according to Darwin-Wallace by Ernst Mayr
1. All species have such great potential fertility that their population size would increase exponentially if all individuals that are born reproduced successfully.

2. most populations are normally stable in size, except for seasonal fluctuations.

3. Nature resources are limited.

Inference 1 - Product of more individuals than the environment can support leads to a struggle for existence among individuals in a population, with only a fraction of offspring surviving each generation.

4. Individuals of a population vary extensively in their characteristics; no two individuals are alike

5. Much of this variation is heritable.

Inference 2 - survival in the struggle for existence is NOT random, but depends in part on the hereditary constitution of the surviving individuals. Those individuals whose inherited characteristics fit them best to their environment are likely to leave more offspring than less fit.
Fill in the blank:

Medusoid stages in the life cycle of some members of the Cnidaria are formed by the process of ________. The resulting medusae reproduce by ________reproduction.
Formed by BUDDING and reproduce by SEXUAL
Monogenea and Trematoda
Are flukes that live as parasites in or on other animals.

Many have suckers for attaching to internal organs of the host, and a tough covering helps protect the parasite.

Reproductive organs nearly fill the interior of a mature fluke.

Flukes generally have life cycles with an alternation of sexual and asexual stages.

Many species require an intermediate host where larvae develop before infecting the final host, where the adult fluke lives.
Ossicles
Are the three bones of the middle ear (malleus, incus, stapes) that AMPLIFY the stimulus, and transmit it through the oval window, which leads to the fluid-filled inner ear.
Parts of outer ear
Auricle (external ear) and the Auditory canal
Parts of the Middle ear
Tympanic membrane (eardrum) and
Ossicles
Tympanic membrane
Or the eardrums, which vibrate at the same frequency as the incoming sound.
Parts of the INNER ear
Cochlea and Vestibular apparatus.
Vestibular apparatus
Involved in maintaining equilibrium.
How sound is processed
Vibration of the ossicles exerts pressure on the fluid in the cochlea, stimulating hair cells in the basilar membrane to transduce the pressure into action potentials, which travel via the auditory (cochlear) nerve to the brain for processing.
Pathway air travels in humans
Nose --> Pharynx --> Larynx --> trachea --> bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli
Each turn of the Calvin Cycle produces how many PGAL? RBP (ribulose phosphate? CO2?
1 turn Calvin cycle produces:

2 PGAL
1 RBP
1 CO2
In six turns of the Calvin Cycle, how many PGAL, CO2, and RBP are formed?
6 turns of Calvin cycle produces:

12 PGAL formed from 6 CO2 and 6 RBP.


12 PGAL recombines to form 1 molecule of glucose and 6 RBP.
12 PGAL recombines to form what?
1 molecule of glucose and 6 RBP
Which of the following is NOT true about the Calvin Cycle and Kreb Cycle?

a. Both cycles produce and use CO2
b. CO2 is fed into the calvin cycle, where CO2 is produced and released in Krebs cycle.
c. Reducing power is utilized in the calvin cycle and NADH is removed in the Krebs cycle
d. Energy is used in the Calvin cycle in the conversion of ATP to ADP, where energy is produced in the Krebs cycle when ATP is formed from ADP.
e. A and C
A. Both cycles produce and use CO2.

Krebs produces and releases CO2.
Calvin cycle only uses CO2.
Krebs Cycle vs. Calvin Cycle
The Calvin cycle is similar to Krebs cycle but in REVERSE:

1. CO2 is fed into the CC, in the KC it it was produced and released.
2. Reducing power is utilized during the cycle (NADPH) in CC; in KC NADH was removed.
3. Energy is used in the cycle (conversion of ATP to ADP) in CC; in KC, energy was produced when ATP was formed from ADP and Pi.
Morula
Latin for "mulberry" is the stage that is characterized by having a SOLID BALL of cells.
Carnivores that eat herbivores is best described as which tropic level?
Secondary consumers

Because herbivores are the primary consumers.
Primary Consumers
Herbivores, which eat plants or algae, are the primary consumers.
Secondary Consumers
Carnivores that eat herbivores
Tertiary Consumers
Carnivores eaten by other carnovires.
Characteristics of Protozoans (Circulatory, Nervous, Respiration, Locomotion, Digestion, and Excretion)
1. Circulatory: Simple Diffusion

2. Nervous: NO organized system

3. Respiration: Simple Diffusion. Every cell in contact with environment.

4. Locomotion: Cilia and Flagella

5. Digestion: Food capture by Phagocytosis. Food vacuoles form and lysosomes fuse with it and break down and diffuse.

6. Excretion: All cells in contact with external environment. Soluble wastes exit via simple diffusion.
Characteristics of Cnidarians (Circulatory, Nervous, Respiration, Locomotion, Digestion, and Excretion)
1. Circulatory: All Cells in direct contact with internal and external so NO SPECIALIZED circulatory system.

2. Nervous: Simple Nervous system (Nerve Net)

3. Respiration: Simple Diffusion

4. Digestion: Use intra/extracellular digestion. TENTACLES bring in food. ENDODERMAL cells line gastrovascular secreting enzymes. GASTRODERMAL cells engulf nutrients and digestion completed intracellularly.
Saprophytic Organisms
Organisms of DECAY.

Include bacteria and fungi