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583 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
What is sensation? |
Registering stimulation of the senses |
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Perception |
Processing and interpretating sensory information |
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Cognition |
Using perceived info to learn, classify, comprehend |
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Process for electromagnetic energy to be detected |
Through eyes, photoreceptor detect, processed in the primary visual cortex |
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2 processes for chemical composition to be detected |
On tongue, chemoreceptors detect, processed by gustatory cortex In nose, chemoreceptors detect, processed by olfactory cortex |
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Process for air pressure waves to be detected |
In ears, mechanoreceptors [because they move] detect, auditory cortex processes |
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Process for tissue distortion to be detected |
Touch (in hands e.g.) detected in mechanoreceptors and thermoreceptors, processed in somatosensory cortex |
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Process for gravity and accelaration to be detected |
Movement detected in mechanoreceptors, processed in the temporal cortex |
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What is transduction? |
Conversion of environmental energy to nerve signals |
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All senses except which pass through the thalamus? |
Smell |
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Process of sense organ to brain |
Environmental energy Receptors Intermediate neurons Thalamus: neuron mass in middle of brain Receiving area in cortex Secondary cortex Higher cortex |
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Feedback for senses process |
Higher cortex Secondary cortex Recieving area in cortex Thalamus |
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What is bottom up processing? |
Perception starts with physical characteristics of stimulus and basic sensory processes (e.g. feature detectors) |
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What did Gibson say about direct perception? (1950s) |
The info coming from sensory receptors is enough for perception to happen - complex thought not necessary The environment contains sufficient cues to provide context to aid perception |
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What is top-down processing? |
Perceived constructs their understanding of external stimuli based on past experience and knowledge |
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What did Gregory (1966) say about top-down processing? |
'Perception is not determined simply by stimulus patterns, rather it is a dynamic searching for the best interpretation of the available data'
(What we experience is ambiguous, brain fills in the gaps) |
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10 ways to investigate sensation and perception |
Staining Single-cell recordings (electrophysiology) fMRI Lesion studies Optical Imaging/near infra-red spectroscopy (NIRS) ERP from EEG (Event-relatee potential from electro-encephalogram) Psychophysics Illusions and introspection Computation and modelling Virtual lesions |
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What is staining? |
Take dead brain cells and stain different cells in certain ways. Allows us to look at structure of the cells (allowed us to discover visual cortex had layers) |
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What's the process of electrophysiology? |
Measure action potentials coming from live particular neurons E.g. play sounds and see which sounds that neuron responds to Helps to understand the very low/bottom level of coding |
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Process of fMRI |
Relation of oxygenated/unoxygenated blood, where activity is in the brain, look at pattern of activity |
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Lesion study example |
Phineas Gage |
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Optical imaging/near infra-red spectroscopy process (NIRS) |
Shine red light into skull, able to penetrate to brain, brain is sensed and can detect blood flow, gives a good idea of what parts of the brain is active |
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What's the process or ERP from EEG |
EEG - measure the electrolytes from the scalp See how events effect pattern of activity |
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What is Psychophysics? |
The scientific study of the relationship between physical stimuli and perceptual phenomenon Get people to make decisions about physical stimuli |
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What are virtual lesions? |
Lesions of the brain created temporarily |
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How are virtual lesions examined |
TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) Pulses of magnetic energy disrupt activity in a small part of the brain for a short period Can be used to investigate sensation and perception |
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Example of virtual lesions by TMS |
Biological motion Picture = point light walker (can be made to look male/female) TMS over the STS (posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS)) seems to disrupt how well people can detect biological motion - people can't see the walking person |
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What's the problems do the brain have to solve from sensory info |
Eye has a 2d surface, world is 3d 2 objects can project same shape to retina but be completely different |
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What can computer vision do? |
Can pick out and identify faces in a picture Helps us to understand the processes |
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3 labels in this picture |
Retina Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (in thalamus) Primary Visual Cortex (V1) |
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Pupil description |
Where the light enters the eye |
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Iris description |
Adjustable aperture (gap) Constricts in high light to make pupil smaller |
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Label |
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Cornea and lens job |
Focus light on retina |
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Ciliary muscles job |
Change shape of lens to bring objects into focus at different distances |
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Retina contains |
Photoreceptors (rods and cones) |
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What are photoreceptors |
Cells with light sensitive photopigments in outer segments |
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Label |
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Rods job |
Contain rhodopsin which respond to dim light |
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Where are there no rods |
In fovea |
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Cones desription |
3 types with photopigments most sensitive to different wavelengths (long, medium, short), daytime, colour vision, See most of the detail, packed tightly into fovea |
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What stage are the retinal ganglion cells in retinal processing? |
Last |
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2 main types of ganglion cells |
Large parasol ganglion cells Small midget ganglion cells |
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Difference between what the parasol ganglion cells and midget ganglion cells do |
Code different properties of the stimuli Have different "receptive fields" (midgets have smaller) |
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Kuffler's (1953) recordings of cat ganglion cells |
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What did Kuffler's (1953) findings show |
On-centre, off-surround retinal ganglion cells receptive field = lateral inhibition |
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Properties if retinal ganglion processing |
Poor at spotting gradual change Good at picking out sharp edges Filters the input for useful info |
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What shows the perceptual effects of retinal ganglion cells (1) |
Hermann Grid |
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What makes the Hermann grid illusion go away |
Wiggly boxes |
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What shows the perceptual effects of retinal ganglion cells (2) |
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Issue with illusion of simultaneous contrast |
Not just immediate surrounding but also background - table shadow makes tile look even lighter |
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Pathways in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (in thalamus) - LGN |
Parvocellular Magnocellular Konicellular |
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Where do midget ganglion cells project to? |
Parvocellular pathway |
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Where do parasol ganglion cells project to? |
Magnocellular pathway |
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What info does the magnocellular cells send? |
Movement and flicker and flicker |
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What info does the parvocellular cells send? |
Detail and colour |
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Why are midget ganglion cells suited for detail |
Smaller reflective fields |
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Why are parasol ganglion cells suited for movement? |
Large reflective fields, need to know about movement quickly |
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Other names for the primary visual cortex |
V1 Striate cortex |
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What is retrinotopy |
Mapping of visual input created by the brain Retinal mapping |
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How good is retrinotopy |
Very biased, lots of information about what focusing on, very little about the periphery |
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What did Hubel and Wiesels investigation of visual cortex entail |
Recording action potential in V1 cells in cats while presenting a light bar stimulus on a screen |
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What did Hubel and Wiesel find? |
There are cells in V1 that fire only when the stimulus was presented in a certain orientation |
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What did instrinstic optical imaging show on V1 |
There are representations of all the points in the visual field and a representation of all the orientations of those points So there are cells in V1 that respond to all the different points and all their orientations |
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What is the role of development on visual cortex |
Critical period If a kitten is raised in a tube with only vertical lines, won't develop cells that respond to horizontal lines |
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What are the 2 streams of processing in V1 |
Dorsal (where) Ventral (what) |
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Visual processing hierarchy |
Dots Lines Shapes Faces |
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What is the hoffding function |
What gestalt psychologists referred to as the problem of how we connect what we perceive to what is stored in out mind Whether perception is as simple as associating what is seen to what is remembered |
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What did Gibson observe to develop theory of direct perception |
Infants who quickly developed perceptual awareness despite lacking much prior knowledge and experience |
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What is the template theory of perception |
Suggests we have templates stored in our minds - highly detailed models of how the world works (patterns). Recognise patterns by comparing it to templates - select 1 that matches exactly what we see Chunk-based theory, store info in chunks |
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What is the feature matching theory of perception |
We attempt to match features of a pattern to stored features, rather than to match an entire template |
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Neuroscience evidence of direct perception |
Mirror neurons (neurons that fire both when an animal act and when the animal observer the same action performed by others) = can understand what we observing before we can form hypotheses on it. Separate lateral occipital pathways (What pathways) for processing form, colour and texture; can judge independently of other properties. |
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Neuroscience evidence of feature-matching theories |
Gnostic units (grandmother cells) that recognise a complex but specific object or concept - Jennifer Aniston neuron |
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Recognition By Components (RBC) Theory of perception |
Seeing with the help of geons (3D geometric shapes e.g. cones bricks) - Biederman |
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Neuroscience evidence of RBC Theory |
Neurons in inferior temporal cortex sensitive to viewpoint-invariant properties (Contradicted by fact some neurons respond to only 1 viewpoint and response decreases as viewpoint changes) |
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Bottom up theories of perception |
Direct/ecological perception Template theories Feature-matching theories RBC theory |
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6 top down theories to perception |
Constructive perception Perceputal constancies Context effect Object-superiority effect Word-superiority effect Configural-superiority effect |
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What is constructive perception |
Expectations and intelligence influence how we perceive the world; based on what we sense, know and can infer |
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What is perceptual constancies |
See things as same size/colour despite changing |
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What are context effect |
Easier to recognise a target object when it is in an expected context Palmer- people identified objects easier if they had previously seen objects appropriate for context rather than inappropriate |
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What is the object-superiority effect |
Easier to recognise target line when it forms part of a 3D rather than a 2D pattern |
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What is the word-superiority effect |
Easier to recognise target letter when it is part of a string of letters that form a word |
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What is the configural-superiority effect |
Objects presented in configurations are easier to recognise than objects presented in isolation (picking dif line is easier when lines form triangles rather than just being lines in isolation) |
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What is human Trichromacy |
3 cone types, maximally sensitive at short, middle and long wavelengths |
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Short wavelength cones peak in which colour? |
Blue |
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Middle wavelength cones peak in which colour? |
Green |
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Long wavelength cones peak in which colour? |
Yellow |
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What is the evolution of trichomacy related to (cause)? |
Foraging for ripe fruit/berries Dichromatic cone types 'blue and yellow' Trichomacy ('yellow' split into 'red' and 'green") |
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What is the evolution of trichomacy related to (effect)? |
Bare skin: socio-sexual signals from blood oxygenated Monochromatic - often nocturnal Trichomatic primates tend to have more had a skin on faces vs dichromatic |
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What colours do monochromats see? |
Black and white |
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What's a dichromatic lacking 'red' (long wavelengths) |
Protanopia |
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What's a dichromat lacking green cones (medium) |
Deuteranopia |
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What's a dichromat lacking in blue cones (short) |
Tritanopia |
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What are the 2 types of anomolous trichromats |
Deuteranomoly Protanomoly |
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What is deuteranomoly |
When the medium cone shifts towards long |
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What is protanomoly |
When the long cone shifts towards medium cone |
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Is anomalous trichomacy a genetic condition? |
Yes - boys 8%, women <1% |
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How does colour perception change over aging |
Becomes more yellow |
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Is there a cure for colour vision deficiency? |
Male squirrel monkeys (dicromatic) Red opsin gene, virus and DNA injected into some cones Gene therapy turns dichromats into trichromats |
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What is human tetrachromacy? |
Having 4 cones - some women have 4, usual 3 and shifted red or green cone type Doesn't mean can see more colours |
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What's does an anomaloscope measure? |
Cone sensitivity |
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What are the 3 'cone-opponent' channels (colours) |
'Red-green' 'Blue-yellow' 'Black-white' |
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What's the name of the red-green channel |
Cherry-teal (Long medium axis) |
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What's the name of the blue yellow channel |
Lime-violet (S axis) |
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Whats the name of the black white channel? |
Achromatic (luminance axis) |
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What are the cells in the LGN for red green colours? |
Parvocellular (midget cells) |
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What are the cells in the LGN for the yellow-blue colour |
Koniocellular |
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What are the cells in the LGN for luminance |
Magnocellular (parasol cells) |
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What's a test that demonstrates cone-opponency? |
Colour affect-effect visual illusion |
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What processing stream does colour go to when sent to temporal cortex |
Ventral processing stream (what pathways) |
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What is cerebral achromatopsia |
Damage to small cortical region, loss of colour perception Cones work, activation at V1 in response to colour, but things don't appear coloured |
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What's the top-down effect on colour |
Memory of colour effects perception of colour E.g. if asked to make banana gray, people make it blueish-gray |
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2 theories on why we prefer some colours more than others |
Biological components theory Ecological valence theory |
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What is the biological components theory of aesthetic response to colour |
Some colours stimulate visual system in a way more pleasing |
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What is the Ecological Valence Theory of aesthetic response to colour? |
Colour preference due to colour-object associations |
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What is WAVE (used in ecological Valence theory) |
Algorithm that shows/predicts how good/bad objects associated with that colour are |
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What is colour constancy |
Perceived colours of objects do not change even if illumination changes |
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What is sustained attention also called? |
Vigilance |
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What is divided attention? |
Where you focus attention on more than 1 things, e.g. multitasking |
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Difference between covert and overt attention |
Covert is trying to obscure where you are attending to Overt is obviously paying attention to something |
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How can we study covert spatial attention? |
Reaction time experiments (assume attention takes time to move around) |
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What are endogenous cues |
Cues that require understanding (top down process) such as an arrow pointing left requires understanding of what arrows are |
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What are exogenous cues? |
Cues that gain attention involuntarily e.g. flashing box instead of an arrow |
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What is the name of this experiment? |
Spatial cueing |
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What's the name of this experiment |
Visual/feature search |
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What is the target in this and what is required? |
Target is a conjunction Serial search is required |
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What is this task? |
Response competition flanker task |
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What is this task? |
Singleton Attentional Capture Task |
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What is change blindness |
The idea that we often miss big changes to our visual field that appear to be obvious if aware |
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In a central fixation task, covert attention to faces has what neural response? |
Increases fusiform face area (FFA) response |
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In a central fixation task, covert attention to houses has what neural response |
Increases Parahippocampal place area (PPA) response |
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What is early selection of attention? |
Info selected for future processing based on sensory physical characteristics |
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What is late selection of attention? |
If info is selected later in the processing stream once it's meaning has already been assigned |
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What is the cocktail party effect? |
When you focus on one stream of info and ignore another NOT the breakthrough effect (hearing name in room full of people) |
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What is the dichotic listening task? |
Ppts wear headphones, dif messages to each ear, subjects attended one ear and ignored the other Asked to repeat attended message out loud (shadowing) |
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What does the dichotic listening task show? |
Ppts shadow the attended message easily When asked about unattended message: Can report physical characteristics (e.g. sex of voice, large pitch changes) But not much else Rarely noticed when in a foreign language or reversed speech No content remembered, even if the same word was presented 35 times |
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What selection does the dichotic listening task support? |
Early |
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2 early selection theories |
Broadbents filter theory Triesman attenuation model |
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How does Triesman's attenuation model differ from Broadbent's filter theory? |
Triesman modifies Broadbents so that unattended messages attenuated rather than lost completely, dampened down Still processed to the level of meaning but the signals in the NS that it generates are v much weaker than the attended stream |
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Problem with early selection from Mossy (1959) |
Breakthrough effect (not the cocktail effect) - hearing name in room full of people |
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Problems with the early selection from Triesman |
Bilinguals influenced by unattended stream if it's in 2nd language |
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Problems with early selection from Gray and Weddeburn |
Responses should have been Dear 7 Jane, but was Dear Aunt Jane |
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What 3 things can late selection of attention explain? |
MacKay Dichotic listening task Response competition interference (flanker task) Negative priming |
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What is the flanker task/response competition task and what does it show relating to attention selection |
Incongruent distractor in irrelevant location slows RTs |
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How can late selection models explain negative priming? |
Asked to categorise words as object or animal Responses to word slowed when preceded by semantically related ignored picture Suggests ignored stimuli is semantically categorised and inhibited |
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A theory of selective attention other than early/late |
Lavie's Load Theory - both late and early are possible The stage of selection depends on the availability of perceptual capacity (depending on the load of the task stimuli) |
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How do behavioural measures of distraction give evidence of Lavie's Load theory |
Flanker task |
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What does the gorillas in our midst experiment show as evidence supporting load theory of attention |
Inattentional blindness |
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2 neuroimaging evidence for load theory |
High perceptual load reduces visual cortex response to background High perceptual load reduces amygdala response to fearful faces |
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What does exogenous mean |
Having external cause or origin (Bottom up) |
Bottom up/ top down? |
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What does endogenous mean |
Having internal cause or origin Top down |
Bottom up/top down |
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Who suggested the biased competition theory? |
Desimone and Duncan |
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Who suggested the biased competition theory? |
Desimone and Duncan |
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What is the biased competition theory? |
Top down attentional control mechanisms and bottom up sensory driven mechanisms sensitive to stimulus salience compete for representation |
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What is local salience |
How much something differs from surrounding image attributes along some dimension such as colour, shape, luminance, size etc? |
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What is this called? |
Salient colour singletons |
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Who studied salient colour singletons? |
Theeuwes |
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How did Theeuwes study salient colour singletons |
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What did Theeuwes suggest after studying singleton attentional capture task |
Bottom up before top down |
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What is a saliency map? |
Picture represented as it's contrasts in terms of intensity, orientation and colour |
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Who suggested contingent capture |
Folk and remington |
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What is contingent capture? |
Where attention can only be captured by stimulus relevant to our goals (even if the relevance may be less obvious) |
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Evidence for folk and Remington contingent capture |
In spatial cueing task Colour cues capture attention when target defined on colour Onset cues capture attention when target defined on onset Not vice versa |
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What did Bacon and Egeth argue about Theeuwes's colour singleton task |
Task is to "spot the odd one out", so singletons colour is relevant to top down goals |
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How did Bacon and Egeth change Theeuwes' task |
Made shape target no longer a singleton, so instead of all other shapes just being a diamond, made them all different shapes |
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What did Bacon and Egeth find in their alteration to Theeuwes' task |
Colour singleton no longer interferes |
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What was Theeuwes' respond to Bacon and Egeth? |
Suggested they reduced the local salience If more shapes added keeping many of them diamonds and few different, colour still stands out |
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An alternative suggested than top down or bottom up suggestion of attention capture |
Abrupt onset - Only abrupt onset can produce stimulus driven capture |
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What did Franconeri and Simon's find about attention |
Moving or looming stimuli capture attention, but receeding stimuli does not |
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What does Anderson suggest may be a third determinant of attention? |
Value |
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What are the 4 sub components of cognitive control? |
Working memory Inhibition Conflict resolution Proactive/reactive control |
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What is conflict resolution |
Where you prioritize one process over another, inhibiting another |
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What is conflict resolution |
Where you prioritize one process over another, inhibiting another |
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What is proactive and reactive control |
Proactive - set a strategy in advance (e.g. decide to concentrate in lecture) Reactive - respond to events as they happen (e.g. if someone's phone went off in lecture, would have to use reactive control to stay concentrated to lecture) |
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According to the load theory, does perceptual load increase or reduce distraction? |
Reduce |
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How did Lavie et al alter the flanker task to test the effects of cognitive load? |
Asked ppts to remember digits during each trial Either low cog load - 1 digit Or high - 6 digits |
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What did Lavie et al find about cognitive load during their alteration to the flanker task? |
Distractor interference increased under high cognitive load (Opposite to perceptual load) |
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Does perceptual load increase or decrease inattentional blindness? |
Increase |
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What was the test for if cognitive load reduces inattentional blindness? |
Carmel et al Suprise memory test for faces |
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What was the test for if cognitive load reduces inattentional blindness? |
Carmel et al Suprise memory test for faces |
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What did the test for cognitive load and awareness (inattentional blindness) find by Carmel et al? |
Low load only has chance level at remembering faces (blindness) High load had about 80% accuracy, better on memory test so were remembering faces |
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Does cognitive load increase or decrease inattentional blindness? |
Decrease |
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Name of test that gives evidence that people with better cognitive control are less distracted |
Engle et al Operation Span (OSPAN) task |
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What happens in the Operation Span (OSPAN) task |
Simultaneously perform simple maths and read words, test recall wordsArgued to assess efficiency of prefrontal functioning |
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What's does the Operation Span (OSPAN) task show? |
Individuals with low WM capacity show increased stroop interference Response competition interference Own name break-through in dichotic listening task |
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In fMRI of spatial cueing, what part of brain responds to the cued location (effect of attention) |
Visual cortex |
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In fMRI, what part if the brain activates at time of cue (the mechanisms orienting attentional) |
Frontal parietal |
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In an fMRI study of the singleton distractor task, what part of the brain negatively predicted behavioural interference? |
Frontal activation |
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In an fMRI study of the singleton distractor task, when there was a colour singleton, what parts of the brain were more activated compared to no colour singleton? |
Frontal and parietal |
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What part of the brain is activated during sustained attention? |
Frontal regions |
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As some frontal regions are used in both attentional control and general task-unrelated thought (mind wandering), what has been suggested to use to differentiate them neuroimaging evidence? And how successful is it? |
Individual differences in working memory capacity, poor - conflicting suggestions = high WM associated with more AND less mind wandering |
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What is the ipsilateral eye |
The eye on the same side of the body |
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What is the contralateral eye |
The eye on the opposite side of the body |
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Do more or less cones increase visual sharpness? |
Less Few cones in fovea where sharpness is best |
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What are split span experiments |
When presented lists to each ear and ppts have to try to report all stimuli from one ear, then the otherWhen asked to switch, performance is poor |
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What is the stimulus set filter (broadbent) |
Filter for only items with common physical characteristics (e.g. all red) |
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What is a response set filter (broadbent) |
Assignment of stimuli to responses is defined with respect to mental category, cannot be defined relative to physical properties (e.g. classifying arithmetic symbols like alpha) |
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Which of stimulus set and response set are filtering and pigeonholing according to Broadbent |
Stimulus set is filtering Response set is pigeonholing |
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What is sound? |
A local pressure disturbance in a continuous medium that contains frequencies in the range of 20 to 20,000 Hz (the audible range) |
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The speed at which the sound propagates depends on what? |
The type, temperature and pressure of the medium through which it propagates |
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What's the speed of sound in dry air? |
343m/s Approx 1 meter every 2.9 milliseconds |
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What are waveforms? |
Sound waves represented as the temporal variation of sound pressure at a fixed point in space |
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What are waveforms? |
Sound waves represented as the temporal variation of sound pressure at a fixed point in space |
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What is a period of a sound wave? |
The duration of an oscillation cycle The time between 2 peaks |
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What is a period of a sound wave? |
The duration of an oscillation cycle The time between 2 peaks |
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What's a good analogy of an oscillator? |
A kid on a swing |
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What does the pressure variation of a periodic sound depend on? |
An oscillator with a given period and a given amplitude |
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What is the frequency of a sound? |
The number of air pressure oscillation cycles per second |
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What is the equation of the frequency of a sound |
Inverse of the period F=1/T |
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What is fundamental frequency of the male voice? |
125 Hz |
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What us the fundamental frequency of the female voice? |
200 Hz |
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What is the amplitude of a sound? |
The magnitude of change in sound pressure within the wave Corresponds to the max amount of pressure at any point in the sound wave |
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Another name for amplitude |
Sound pressure level |
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What is amplitude measured in |
Decibels, a logarithmic perceptual scale (×10= double the amplitude) |
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What does a spectrogram enable us to visualise? |
The distribution of the energy (amplitude) in 2 dimensions: time (s) and frequency (Hz) |
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What 2 ways to represent sound like spectrogram |
Spectrum Waveform |
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Difference between a spectrogram and a spectrum |
Spectrum has time dimension removed |
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What is a spectrogram without the dimension of frequency |
Waveform |
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What is a pure tone? |
Single frequency tones with no harmonic content (no over tones Corresponds to a sine wave |
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What are complex sounds |
Periodic sounds that have energy at more than 1 frequency, composed of more than 1 pure tone |
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What is the pinna/auricle |
External bit of the ear, affects high frequency sounds by interference between the echoes reflected off it's different structures |
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What connects the pinna to the ear drum? |
The meatus (ear canal) |
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Role of the outer ear |
Capture sound signals Amplify mid frequencies Vertical direction coding |
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Role of the middle ear |
Protection Impedance matching (maximize power transfer) |
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Role of the inner ear |
Frequency analysis Transduction (convert energy) |
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What does the middle ear cavity contain |
3 ossicles (tiny bones): the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrup) |
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What does impedance matching in the middle ear entail? |
Enables air vibrations (sound) to be efficiently transformed into fluid vibrations Turns a large amplitude vibration in air to a small amplitude vibration (of the same energy) in fluid |
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What is the function of the cochlea? |
To transform a mechanical signal into neural responses in the 8th cranial nerve (auditory vestibular nerve) |
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What are the name of the hairs in the ear? |
Stereocilia |
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In the organ of corti, are the outer or inner hair cells free to move? |
Inner |
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When a sound reached the middle ear the activity of the stapes against the oval window causes pressure changes across what? |
The basilar membrane |
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When the basilar membrane bends, what it generates flow where? |
In the endolymph |
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When the hairs in the inner ear bend towards the tallest stereocilium, does the cell voltage increase or decrease? |
Increase |
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What are outer hair cells responsible for? |
The high sensitivity (hear very low thresholds sounds) and sharp tuning (high frequency resolution) |
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What are efferent fibres? |
Brain to ear fibres |
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What does "outer hair cells exhibit motility" mean? |
Act as tiny motors that amplify the mechanical movement of the basilar membrane |
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How does the sound waves change as it travels down the basilar membrane |
Starts with high frequencies (narrow and stiff) Ends with low frequencies (wide and flaccid) |
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What is the place theory of frequency analysis |
High frequency sounds only excite neurons at the base (position 2) Low frequency sounds only excite neurons at the apex (position 1) |
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What is the temporal (or 'phase locking') theory of pitch perception for pure tones? |
The brain times the cycles of the waveform (periods) Only works for low frequencies |
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What is the coding of intensity |
The louder a sound is, the more frequently the auditory nerve fires Dif nerves have different thresholds (most low, few high and won't saturate until sounds are high) |
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What are the 4 parts of the vocal apparatus |
The lungs The trachea The larynx The supralaryngeal vocal tract |
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What are the 3 parts in the supralaryngeal vocal tract |
The pharynx The mouth The nasal cavity |
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What are the two functional components in voice production |
The source and the filter |
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What is the source in voice production |
The larynx |
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What is the filter in voice production |
The vocal tract |
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What is the filter in voice production |
The vocal tract |
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What is the filter in voice production |
The vocal tract |
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What creates the pitch in voices |
Rate of vibration of vocal folds affects the fundamental frequency, which affects the pitch |
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What is phonation? |
Vibration of the vocal folds |
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What is another name for sound waves generated by cyclic opening and closing of the glottis |
Glottal wave |
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How many times the vocal fold open and closes per second gives what? |
The fundamental frequency (F0) |
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The variation of F0 with time determines the fundamental frequency contour. In speech it affects what? |
The intonation |
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Does pitch increase or decrease with longer and heavier vocal folds? |
Decrease |
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How much bigger is the larynx in males |
40% |
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What are the vocal tract resonances? |
The formants |
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Formants are on average what % lower in adult males than females |
20% |
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What is articulation |
Change in vocal tract shape |
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What changes formant frequency patterns? |
Modulation of the cross sectional area of the oropharynx |
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What's the difference between vowels and consonants? |
Vowel has open configuration of the vocal tract Consonant has a constriction or closure at one or more points along the vocal tract |
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What number formants are mainly involved in vowel perception and classification? |
F1 and F2 |
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What number formants are mainly involved in vowel perception and classification? |
F1 and F2 |
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What 2 things categorise consonants? |
Place and manner of articulation |
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What are fricative consonants? |
Where the vocal tract partially closes |
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What are stop consonants |
Where the vocal tract completely closes, then suddenly opens again |
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What is coarticulation |
The articulation of 2 or more speech sounds together, so that 1 influences the other |
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Advantages of coarticulation? |
Easier to transmit info at a faster rate |
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Disadvantages of coarticulation |
No constant acoustic targets in speech The same consonant can be represented as dif sounds in dif contexts The same sound can be heard as different consonants in different contexts |
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What is categorical perception? |
Perception of different sensory phenomena as being qualitatively or categorically different |
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What consonants have labial articulation |
B p |
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What consonants have alveolar articulation |
D t |
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What consonants have velar articulation |
G K |
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What consonants have velar articulation |
G K |
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What is voice onset time |
The silence duration before the consonant is heard |
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3 definitions of categorical perception in speech |
Sharp phoneme boundary Discrimination peak at phoneme boundary Discrimination predicted from identification |
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What is a discrimination experiment in speech? |
Play 2 stimuli that vary by a very small amount of steepness in slope of a formant next to each, asked if it's the same letter or a different letter |
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In the discrimination experiment, does everyone have the same categories for each phoneme? |
No, can vary a little bit e.g. different language have dif cut offs |
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What is categorical perception of a phoneme a result of? |
Human mapping auditory signal to articulatory perception |
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Is speech categorical perception unique to humans and why |
No, chinchillas and quals show the same voice onset time boundaries for /da/ and /ta/ continuum Macaques show discrimination peaks at human voice onset time and place of articulation boundaries |
2 evidence |
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Is categorical perception of speech innate or acquired |
Children born with ability to make many speech distinctions, but lose ability to make distinctions the language doesn't use CP is ACQUIRED by reduction of perceptual sensitivity within native phoneme boundaries (so learn distinctions of 1 language) Sensitivity can be re-acquired with intensive training |
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What is the difference between a phonetic sounds and phonemic sound |
Phonetic sound (phone) = a particular sound used by any language e.g. the sound of l or r Phonemic sound (phoneme) = a sound used in contrast to another in a particular language e.g. the category /r/ as distinct from /l/ |
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Whats an example of a minimal pair? |
/r/ and /l/ in English |
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What do minimal pairs define? |
Phonemes in a particular language |
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What is the bar, far effect called |
McGurk effect |
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What is an interdisciplinary approach? |
Applying methods and language from more than one discipline (branch of knowledge) |
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What approach allows us to study language? |
Interdisciplinary |
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3 reasons Chomsky suggests language could not have evolved through natural selection |
No genetic variation Confers no selective advantage Would require more evolutionary time and genomic space than is available |
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What type of humans had the largest brain size? |
Neanderthal |
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What % of our body weight is our brain? |
2% |
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What % of our energy does our brain take up? |
20% |
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What is the Machiavellian intelligence or social brain hypothesis |
Brain increases in size due to selective pressures favouring individuals capable of dealing with increasingly complex social relationships |
Why brain is so large in modern humans Enable language/social cognition: |
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Problem with the Machiavellian intelligence or social brain hypothesis |
What came first, large brain or large social group - chicken and egg situ |
Brain increases in size due to selective pressures favouring individuals capable of dealing with increasingly complex social relationships |
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What is the social contract hypothesis |
Large brain evolved to facilitate symbolism, necessary to enable the coordination of complex social contracts (e.g. marriage) which is necessary in hunting |
Why human brains so big Enable language/social cognition: |
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What is the scheherazade effect hypotheses |
Verbal skills as an indicator of gene quality. Selected for by sexual selection. |
Why human brains so big Enable language/social cognition: |
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Is the size of prefrontal lobe the reason we can speak? |
No, recent MRI suggest frontal lobe not relatively bigger than apes |
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How do mirror neurons link to language |
Capacity to imitate Neurons fire in the homologue of the Brocas area/F5 of the premotor cortex Enable mapping of perception onto execution Natural starting point for evolution of imitation abilities |
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In the Kuypers/Jurgens hypothesis to speech, what do only humans have? |
Only humans have direct connections to the laryngeal motor neurons that control the muscles of the larynx |
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What is thoracic breathing |
Using muscles of the thorax (intercostal muscles) and the abdomen to keep constant control over breathing |
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What is the size exaggeration hypothesis |
Sexual selection, sound bigger |
The descent of the larynx |
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What 2 vowels couldnt Neanderthal produce? |
i and a |
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Is right handedness present in other animals or just human |
Unique to humans |
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Most vertebrates show a dominance for vocal production and perception in which hemisphere? |
Left |
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What did Corballis suggest to be the reason we are right handed? |
Long lasting association between gestures and localisation Discovery of mirror neurons for gesturijg in homologous equivalent to Brocas area in monkeys support idea of imitation abilities essential to language may have involved gesturing before vocalising |
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What is the ding-dong theory |
Imitation/ritualisation of nature sounds |
To what the first spoken words derive from |
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What is the pooh-pooh theory? |
Imitation/ritualisation of internal states (fear-aggression) |
To what the first spoken words derive from |
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What is the bow-wow theory |
Imitation/ritualisation of other species calls (e.g. preys, hunt deer bleat) |
To what the first spoken words derive from |
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What is a protolanguage |
Ability to form representations and combine them into short sequences |
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What is the classic model to how we categorise the world |
Features (set defining features) |
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Conceptual hierarchies lead to ... of representation |
Economy |
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What is the probabilistic view of concepts |
Prototype theory No defining features, concepts represented by prototypes with characteristic features |
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What is the probabilistic view of concepts |
Prototype theory No defining features, concepts represented by prototypes with characteristic features |
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What is the theory theory of concepts |
Concepts are knowledge-based, based on people's goals, assumptions and understandings Not a checklist of unrelated features |
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What is the theory theory of concepts |
Concepts are knowledge-based, based on people's goals, assumptions and understandings Not a checklist of unrelated features |
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Does the prototypicality view or theory theory view of concepts allow for conceptual combination? |
Theory theory |
Baby oil Dog fish |
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Does the prototypicality view or theory theory view of concepts allow for conceptual combination? |
Theory theory |
Baby oil Dog fish |
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Evidence we can think without language (2) |
Prelingual babies show evidence of conceptual categories e.g. phoneme discrimination Speech and language impairments don't necessarily destroy thought and reason |
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What did Ferdinand de Sausurre suggest about concepts |
There is a signifier (the symbol or image) and a signified (the meaning conveyed) and the connection if fundamentally arbitrary |
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What does the Bouba-Kiki effect show? |
Sound symbolism: the idea that the sound of a word corresponds in some kind of way to meaning |
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What were the patterns in sound meaning connections across thousands of languages that Blasi et al. Found? |
Little - i Full - p or b |
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Which brand or ketchup was suggested to be thicker in Klinks study? |
Nodax |
Nidax or Nodax |
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What is this? |
A syntactic tree |
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What are bound morphemes |
Parts of words that can't stand on their own e.g. -s in dogs |
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Evidence words are broken into parts |
The wug test |
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What are the 2 parts of the mental lexicon? |
Full listing (all words have to be looked up, all of them stored) Full parsing (all words must be decomposed into elements, computation) |
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According to Pinker, idiosyncratic words are stored or computed? |
Stored |
E.g. find -> found |
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According to Pinker, fully transparent words are stored or computed? |
Computed |
E.g. walk -> walked |
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What is it called when a word is used often (e.g. a compound word like homework) so that it's stored as a word |
Lexicalisation |
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What does constituent mean? |
Being a part of a whole |
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How to study storage vs computation in words |
Split up compound words into consistuents e.g. homework, home and work Measure response time to word and see if there is a change between whole-compound frequency and constituent frequency |
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What did Andrews, Miller and Rayers eye tracking with compound words show? |
Evidence of both lexicalisation and decomposition - dual route |
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What did Marantz suggest on morphemes? |
All words are stored in pieces |
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What did Kuperman et al suggest for compound word storage/computation |
Probabilistic multiple route model Interaction between whole-compound and constituent frequencies- integration of multiple strategies |
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What is a maximally expressive language? |
Having a different word for every unique event, thing, person, action etc |
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What is the principle or parsimony |
Getting the most use out of the smaller number of units |
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What is language economy? |
Getting a balance between expressiveness and efficiency |
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Issue with efficiency in language |
Ambiguity |
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What are garden path sentences? |
The "default" reading of the ambiguous section doesn't turn out to be the right reading by the end of the sentence E.g. queen mother tried to help abuse girl |
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Definition of language |
A system of symbols and rules that enable us to communicate |
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What is embodied cognition? |
The experience of living, sensing and perceiving the world fundamentally informs our conception if it Not a brain in a jar |
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Lakoff and Johnson suggested our embodied concepts underlie thought and language through what? |
Conceptual Metaphors |
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What concepts have vertical orientations? |
Self esteem Power Mortality Happiness Divinity |
Good is up |
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What did Pecher et al find on conceptual location |
Conceptual location of the word in space actually slowed them down if ppts expected where the word would be based on the embodied concept of things being either above or below you |
'Is it found in the sky' 'Is it found in the ocean' |
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What did Pulvermüller find on embodied cognition? |
Applied TMS (stimulation) to motor region for arm or leg Faster lexical decisions for leg related words if leg region stimulated (same for arms) Language not modular or abstract bit integrated part of experience |
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What did Zwaan and Pecher find our sensory info being simulated? |
Ppts read a sentence implying a particular colour, (stopped in woods to pick leaf from tree) Then shown picture of leaf either matching context or mismatching, asked if object appeared in sentence Ppts were slower if didn't match |
Leaf |
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What did Connell and Lynott (2009) find on sensory info being simulated? |
Ppts read a sentence implying a particular colour for the target, bear in woods, bear in north pole Stroop kind of test, say colour of the word (bear) Woods in brown is quickest (north pole in brown or white v similar) Colour we expect something to be is automatically evoked by language |
Bear Method and findings n all |
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What does linguistic relativity mean? |
Features of language influence/bias patterns of thought |
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What is linguistic determinism? |
Features of a language determine/constrain patterns of thought |
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From what theory does linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism come from? |
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis |
Hypothesis |
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Issue with linguistic deterninism |
If your language doesnt have a word for something, doesn't mean you cannot understand it |
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What did Whorf suggest? |
Hopi has no words, grammatical forms, construction or expression that refer to time so has no general notion or intuition of time as a smooth flowing continuum of it |
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Counterargument of Whorf |
Malotki created a 600 page discourse on grammar of time in Hopi showing Whorf is wrong |
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What is the circulatory in Whorf? |
People who speak dif languages think differently How do we know they think differently? Because their languages are different |
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2 studies on linguistic relativity |
Colour categories Who dunnit? (Break vase) |
No names needed |
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What is the tribe whose colour categories were examined? |
Berinmo tribe of New Guinea |
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Who studied the Berinmo tribe |
Roberson et al |
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How many colours do the Berinmo tribe have terms for? |
5 |
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How many colour terms to England have |
11 |
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What did the who dunnit? task show |
For accidents, English speakers use more agentive descriptions (she broke) than Spanish and remember the correct actor more frequently than Spanish |
Language |
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What is it called when both languages are active even when only 1 being used |
Joint activation |
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What is it called when both languages are active even when only 1 being used |
Joint activation |
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What does parsimonious in relation to language |
Language system has a lot of info to manage and needs to chose which things to pay attention to/which to simplify/go into detail in order to communicate |
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What are cognates |
A words than means the same thing in two different languages E.g. piano is piano in english and spanish |
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What is an interlingual homograph |
"A false friends" A word that has the same forms but means different things in dif languages E.g. pie is foot in spanish |
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Test on dutch and english words for joint activation |
Bilinguals lexical decisions - (is this a word Y or N) Faster for cognates Slower for interlingual homographs when the pronounciation was different Monolinguists no effect |
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What are interlingual homophones |
Words that sound similar and share spelling but different meanings |
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What did the study on homophones and joint activation show |
Influence of the second language also extends to auditory domain (not only visual processing) |
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What is the ERP evidence for simultaneous language use |
When asked about English words, chinese-english bilinguals had no behavioural differences but changes in N400 ERP signal indexing semantic priming So chinese word accessed as well (despite only english word being asked about) |
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What did the study on sign language and join activation do? |
ASL/English bilinguals asked to just whether 2 written english words were similar, some of these word pairs had ASL signs with similar forms |
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What did the study on sign language and joint activation show |
Judgements were faster when words related and signs were similar Judgements were slower when words unrelated and signs were similar |
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What is the sign language and joint activation study evidence of |
That joint activation also occurs crossmodally, visual/gestural vs auditory/spoken, doesnt matter how people are communicating |
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What is the term for intentionally switching between languages |
Code switching |
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What asked to do code switching, does your first or second language have more of an effect on you first/second language |
Second language has more of an effect on the first |
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Are monolinguals or bilinguals better at verbal fluency tasks (name a word starting with a particular letter) |
Mono |
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What is the effect shown on bilinguals in a verbal fluency task |
When bilinguals asked to name a word starting with a particular letter from their 2nd Lang first, they were slower to do same task after but in their 1st lang |
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What does the verbal fluency task show in code switching |
Global (whole-language) vs local (lexical-item) inhibition Different levels at play |
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What 3 cog domains or tasks may bilinguals be better at |
Executive functuon/inhibitory control ToM Memory |
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What 2 things are bilingual children better at |
Finding embedded figures Identifying correct grammar in odd sentences |
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What 2 things are bilingual children better at |
Finding embedded figures Identifying correct grammar in odd sentences |
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What 2 things are bilingual children better at |
Finding embedded figures Identifying correct grammar in odd sentences |
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What 2 tasks are adults better at |
Stroop task Simon task |
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How can the enhanced inhibitory control be disadvantageous |
Trilingual ppts asking to name numbers in patter Eng/Ger/Eng, slower vs Eng/Ger/Fre Require gloabal inhibition of Eng Negative priming slow response |
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Evidence of bilingual performance on ToM |
Bilingual children better on both ToM tasks - standard false belief task and modified to mimic language switch scenario |
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What is the evidence on memory for bilinguals |
Mixed |
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How long does it take for bilingual and monolingual children to gain a vocab or 50 words |
About 1.5 years |
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What is receptive vocabulary |
Words you understand |
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Whats the dif in receptive vocabulary between monolingual and bilingual children |
Monolingual know more (Only home words, not words from school) |
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Difference in lexical retrieval in bilinguals and monolinguals |
Bilinguals slower and experience more tip of the tongue states |
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Are BSL and ASL mutually intelligible to british and amercian English? |
No |
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How is phonology shown in sign language (4 ways) |
The form or configuration taken on by the hand The orientation in the hand takes on while making the sign The location the sign is performed The movement the hand describes |
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What are minimal pairs in spoken language |
2 words that differ by only 1 sound e.g. pat bat |
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Does ASL have minimal pairs? |
Yes |
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How do babies exposed to sign language act? |
Babble as they would with speech exposure babies do with sound |
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What is obligatory for grammatical communications in sign? |
Particular facial expressions |
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What does using facial expressions in sign lead to? |
Enhanced facial discrimination ability |
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Are sign languages gestures or pantomime |
No, but contain iconic elements e.g. the sign to forget |
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Whats the differences between associators and projectors in colour synaesthetes |
Associators: in the minds eye Projectors: in the visual field, have experience of perceiving colours |
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Understanding if the colours perceived in colour synaesthetes are randoj or are dimensions of colour mapped onto language is interesting for what 2 things |
Both individual letters (graheme processing) Whole words (lexical processing) |
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Are there trends in colour letter associations |
Yes for synaesthetes and non-synaesthetes |
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Evidence for colours being associated to letters being learnt |
The apple hypothesis, some influence of the language you are exposed to as a child and what associations you make as an adult |
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What did a cross-linguistic study find on colour synaesthesia |
First letter in alphabet is red |
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What is prosody |
Stress, length, intonation |
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If the first consonant is R, what colour is the word seen as |
Purple |
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If the first vowel in A what colour will the word be |
Red |
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How can you change the colour of a word with 2 syllables with dif vowels |
Stress the dif syllable |
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How can synaesthesia be used to study lexicalisation |
Compound words 1 colour = lexicalised 2 colours = consistuents, decomposed Depends on freq = freq-based lexicalisation |
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What was found in compound words for synaesthetes? |
Synaesthetes reported more 1 colour compounds in high frequency words |
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Who created the Multistore model of memory |
Atkinson and shiffrin, 1971 |
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What store holds visual info |
Iconic |
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What store holds auditory info |
Echoic |
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What store holds touch info |
Haptic |
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Evidence for capacity of STM |
Miller's 7+/-2 |
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Evidence for MMM |
Patient KF suffered brain damage due to road accident Digit span of 2 in STM, but intact LTM and learning intact Support for separate stores |
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Evidence against MMM |
KF could retrieve and encode LTM, Contradicts idea that STS used for processing memory and storage |
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Who created the Working Memory Model |
Baddeley and Hitch, 1974 |
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4 components of the WMM |
Central executive Visuo-spatial sketchpad Phonological loop Episodic buffer (added later Baddeley, 2000) |
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What are the 2 components in the phonological loop |
Phonological store Articulatory rehearsal process |
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Difference between phonological store and articulatory rehearsal process |
Store is inner ear, speech maintained through rehearsal Articulatory rehearsal process is inner voice, converts written words to auditory, maintains auditory info through rehearsal |
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4 key evidence for phonological loop |
Phonological similarity effect Irrelevant speech effect Word length effect Articulatory suppression |
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What is the phonological similarity effect |
Baddeley 1966 Memory for phonologicallg similar consonants/words inferior to phonologically dissimilar consonants or words Same for auditory and visual presentation of stimuli - showing storage in phonological way |
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What is the irrelevant speech effect |
Memory for visually presented consonants or digits is impaired by the simultaneous presentation of speech Shows both using same system: visual converted to phonological code |
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What is the word length effect |
Baddeley, Thomson, Buchanan Memory for short (1 syllable words) better than memort for long (5 syllable words) Showing limited capacity ~ 2 seconds Also linked to speech rate, the quicker we can vocalise items, the more items we can rehearse within 2 secs |
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What is articulatory suppression |
Baddeley, Thomson and Buchanan Memory is impaired when ppts required to simultaneously repeat a word out loud Also phonological similarity effect for visually presented info also disappears when ppts simultaneously repeat a word out loud |
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Evidence for dual tasks |
Digital span impaired by verbal but not a version secondary task Visual span impaired by a visual, but not a verbal secondary task |
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3 evidence for a visuo-spatial sketchpad |
Corsi-block tapping task Phillips matrix task Brain damage patients |
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What is the Corsi block tapping task |
Experimenter taps out a sequence on 9 randomly arranged blocks, ppt then copies |
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What was found in the Corsi block tapping task |
Spatial memory declines with the sequence size and can be used to measure ppts spatial memory span Shows limited capacity for spatial memory |
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What is the Phillips Matrix task |
Ppts recall locations of a pattern of coloured cells in a grid |
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What dies the Phillips Matrix task show |
Visual memory declines with the number of cells that a ppt has to remember and can be used to measure visual memory span Shows limited capacity for visual memory |
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What do brain damage patients show for the visuospatial sketchpad |
Separate working systems as some patients impaired at corsi task (impaired spatial), with intact visual span (philips matrix), others vice versa |
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4 jobs of the central executive |
Focus attention Divide attention among tasks Switch attention from 1 task to another Interface with LTM |
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Evidence for central executive |
Numerous observations that dual tasks (even for noncompeting tasks) show impaired performace compaired to single tasks |
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4 issues with WM (before episodic buffer) |
Articulatory suppression reduces, but doesn't eliminate digit span for visual stimuli Some LTM amnesiacs show immediate recall for complex info, beyond limited capacity of existing storage units It is unclear how info from different modalities and from LTM is bound and stored It is unclear how rehearsal operates outside of articulatory rehearsal |
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Role of episodic buffer |
Limited capacity for "chunks" or episodes Integrates info from different modalities and LTM |
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What are the next steps for WM (5) |
Distinguish boundaries of dif storage systems within working memory and from executive functions To distinguish boundaries of episodic buffer from LT episodic memory To better understand processes responsible for chunking To distinguish binding within episodic buffer from perceptual binding To better understand the role of the episodic buffer in consciousness |
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Which of declarative or non declarative ltm is implicit |
Non declarative |
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4 types of non declarative LTM |
Procedural Priming Associative learning Non-associative learning (reflex) |
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Where in the brain is episodic and semantic ltm associated with |
Medial and lateral temporal lobe |
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Where in the brain is procedural ltm associated to |
Striatum |
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Where in the brain is priming associated to |
Cortex |
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Where in the brain is associative learning associated to |
Amygdala Cerebellum |
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Evidence of dissociation between semantic and episodic memory |
MTL patients damage in medial temporal lobes have impaired episodic, intact semantic SD (semantic dementia) patients damage in neocortex, intact episodic impaired semantic |
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What is the 2 ways episodic and semantic memory are interdependent |
Semantic knowledge can facilitate episodic memory performance Impaired episodic impacts acquisition of new semantic memories |
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How can semantic knowledge facilitate episodic memory performance |
Ppts better able to identify previously presented food prices was better if prices consistent with semantic knowledge MTL patients with intact semantic performed same as ^, if impaired, showed no benefit of consistent semantic prices |
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Theories of the interdepence of episodic and semantic memory |
Episodic is embedded in semantic (tulving) [H/ episodic info influences semantic memory] Semantic mems abstracted from episodic when contextual info is lost (differs across repititions Episodic are semantic mems binded to contextual info Constructive episodic simulation hypothesis: episodic mems can be combined constructively and flexible to imagine future scenarios, drawing on semantic knowledge |
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What is the remember-know paradigm |
Suggests things we remember is episodic whereas know is semantic memory |
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Whats a study on the remember-to-know shift |
Studente were given remember know task based on selection of exam qs Remember responses declines over 3 years but know (semantic) responses remained constant |
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2 models on semantic memory |
Hierarchical/semantic network model Spreading activation model |
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3 types of priming |
Repitition priming (prior exposure to stimuli will facilitate retrieval of it) Perceptual priming (priming in tasks requiring the process of surface or perceptual info) Conceptual priming (priming in tasks requiring the process of senantic info |
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5 perceptual implicit memory tasks that priming helps |
Word fragment completion Word-stem completion (re_ _ _) Anagram solution Word identification (did word appear) Lexical decision tasks (word or non word) |
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3 conceptual implicit memory tasks priming helps with |
Word association (asked to give a word associated to given word) Category instance generation (given category and asked to give e.g.) General knowledge questions |
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Which priming task do amnesiacs have impaired performance on |
Word association |
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What is memory consolidation |
Strengthening info in LTM |
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Retrieval is enhanced by what level of processing |
Deeper (e.g. meaningful) over shallow (e.g. physical characteristics) |
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Recall in enhanced by what 6 deeper processes |
Embesding words in complex sentences Creating visual mental imagery Self-reference (does this word desribe you?) Generating info - generate words related to given word Organisation - into categories The testing effect: learn info by testing yourself |
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3 issues with the levels of processing theory |
Difficult to define depth of processing: processing is deep when memory performance is better (circular reasoning) Descriptive rather than explanatory Doesn't take into account relevance of the processing method to the memory test |
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Godden and baddeleys underwater study is an example of what |
Encoding specificity princle |
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Another example of encoding specificity principle |
Grant et al, learning silent vs noisy, test silent vs noisy |
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One study on state dependent encoding |
Fich and Metchalfe Encoding/test when happy/sad |
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5 influences on encoding |
Encoding specificity principle State-dependent encoding Transfer appropriate processing Spacing effect Sleep |
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What is transfer appropriate processing |
Retrieval is enhanced if memory test is consistent with the method of encoding e.g. semantic/rhyming encoding, standard recognition test/rhyming recognition test |
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What is the spacing effect on encoding |
Spacing encoding sessions over time enhances retrieval |
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How does sleep affect encoding |
Sleep shortly after encoding enhance retrieval |
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2 theories of amnesia |
Encoding deficit Retrieval deficit |
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Issue with the encoding deficit |
Explains retrograde amnesia as an ongoing encoding deficit H/ can be sudden onset |
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Issue with retreival deficit |
Inability to retrieve memories not supported by differing levels of retrograde and antrograde amnesia, sometimes isolated cases of each |
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What are the 2 stages to the standard theory of consolidation |
1. Initial memory trace is created within a few secs 2. Over several years the memory trace is strengthened by further consolidation involving the hippocampus |
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How can the standard theory of consolidation explain amnesia |
Retrograde amnesia of 2-3yrs in some patients with predominantly anterograde amnesia (e.g. HM) is due to impairment to consolidation by hippocampus |
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What is another theory of consolidation |
Multiple trace theory |
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What is the multiple trace theory |
Over time, episodic memories are converted to semantic memories via hippocampus Episodic mem retrieval dependent on hippocampus Semantic is not |
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Which theory for memory consolidation is the best |
Evidence is inconclusive |
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What is the temporal gradient in amnesia |
Retrograde amnesia often presents with better memory for older mems than more recent ones |
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What 4 things are preserved in amnesiacs |
Procedural Repetition priming Know Semantic |
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When is there a reminiscence bump? |
Adolescence and young adulthood |
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What are 3 hypothesis to the reminiscence bump |
Self-image hypothesis Cognitive hypothesis Cultural life script hypothesis |
Just names |
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What is the self image hypothesis to the reminiscence bump |
Memories linked to events important to development of self image |
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What is the cognitive hypothesis to the reminiscence bump |
Memories enhanced for period of many life changes followed by stable period |
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What is the cultural life script hypothesis |
Enhanced memories for events consistent with culturally expected events |
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What are flashbulb memories? |
Memories for when we first hear about a highly emotional event e.g. 9/11 Detailed and vivid Persistent over time |
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2 evidence on the accuracy on flashbulb memories |
Neisser and Harsch: peoples memories after 1 day and 2.5 to 3 years later of Challenger disaster showed discrepancies Talarico and Rubin: decrease in accurate memories and increase in inaccurate memories to both everyday and 9/11 memories same rate, H/ people believe more accurate in 9/11 than everyday |
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2 explanations for flashbulb memories |
Emotional info enhances the subjective perception of remembering Narrative rehearsal hypothesis: emotional info undergoes repeated rehearsal |
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Evidence for emotional info enhancing subjective perception of remembering |
People remember negative pictures over neutral pictures H/ less likely to remember frame colour if negative |
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Evidence for narrative rehearsal hypothesis |
Over 40% ppts reported seeing non-existent video footage of Princess Diana's fatal car crash |
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What does the war of the ghosts show |
That memory is constructive |
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Other evidence for memory being constructive |
Source monitoring errors/misattributions e.g. gendered statements, becoming famous overnight: seeing infamous names led to sense of familiarity |
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What are proactive interefence |
Memories before an event interfering with retrieval of memories of that events Acts forwards in time |
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What is retroactive interefence |
New info acquired after an event interfere with retrieval of memories of that event Act back in time Misleading qs |
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Misinformation effect evidence |
Loftus and Palmer Smashed = 41mph Hit = 34mph |
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What is evidence of source monitoring |
Ppts watched a vid of either male or female teacher reading to students, then watched of vid of female teacher being robbed Ppts who viewed the male teacher video often selected him as the robber from a selection of photos |
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What is the link between quicker intuitive decisions and satisfaction with decisions |
Choosing poster Deliberated decisions reported higher satisfaction immediately after Quick decisions reported higher satisfaction 1 month later |
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What did Gladwell suggest about decisions on relationships |
People could decide if relationships would last based on short clips |
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What did Gladwell find on doctors and decisions |
Could decide if docs would be sued for malpractice Info about training not useful |
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What did Gladwell find on doctors and decisions |
Could decide if docs would be sued for malpractice Info about training not useful |
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What did William james make distinctions between |
Associative thought Reasoning |
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What is system 1 thinking |
Fast, automatic, little or no effort, no voluntary control |
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Which thinking is the feeling if agency and might be identified with the self |
2 |
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Which thinking is when we are awake |
System 1 |
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What does the Wasons selection task show |
People quick to decide/driven by what told about the task - evidence of system 1 Cognitive neuropsychology shows dif brain regions involved |
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7 unconscious influences on system 1 |
Unscramble elderly words leads to walking slower Walking slowly primes words about elderly Pencil in mouth vs teeth increase amusement Vote for increased funding at achool if voting station in school Subtle money primes make people more individualistic and selfish Lying on phone leads to preference of mouthwash over soap, vice versa for email Pics of faces vs flowers sig ^d money out into honest box |
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What is the mere exposure effect (Zajonc) |
Preference for things just because they are familiar |
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Does a good mood increase or decrease taking things at face value |
Increase, depressed think more analytically |
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What is the halo effect and which system does it relate to |
The tendency for an impression created in 1 area to influence opinion in a dif area e.g. height - leader System 1 |
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What is aschs primacy effect |
Things at beginning of a list recalled more Alan intelligent... envious Ben envious... intelligent |
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What does WYSIATI stand for |
What you see is all there is |
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Who suggested WYSIATI |
Kahneman |
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What does WYSIATI explain |
Overconfidence Framing Base-rate neglect |
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Issue with system 2 |
Lazy |
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What is ego depletion |
Doing a difficult task has consequences afterwards |
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Evidence of system 2 being lazy |
Danzinger et al., parole judges default to "easy" option of denying parole before food breaks Maths qs, chose easy most obvious (but wrong) answer when in a good mood or not thinking hard |
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How do system 1 and 2 interact |
Substitution |
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What is the term for our likes and dislikes determining our beliefs |
The Affect Heuristic |
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Evidence for the role of the affect heuristic |
Impaired affect associated with impaired decision making |
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What is magical thinking (e.g.) |
Where system 2 doesn't question system 1 e.g. contagion - would you wear hitlers sweater? |
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What are the 2 selves |
The experienced self The remembering self |
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What are the 2 meanings of utility |
Experiences utility (e.g. hedonic vs hedonistic plessure/pain, Bentham and Utilitarianism) Decision utility (wants desires based on memory and projection) |
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What 2 things were retrospective judgements based on for colonoscopies and 1 thing they neglected |
Based on worst moment and end moment Duration neglect |
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What did the cold pressor experiment show on judgement |
If the water slightly warmer at the end for an extra 30 seconds, dont remember it as bad as without - chose to repeat with extra 30 seconds |
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What is the James Dean effect |
Ratings of total happiness of life were independent of total duration but strongly affected by the last 5 worse years Neglect of duration, averaging |
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Large scale study on the experiencing self |
Measures of Experienced Well-Being (EWB) |
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Large scale study on remembering |
Measures of (usually retrospective) evaluation of a whole life or part of it E.g. the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale |
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Difference of EWB and life evaluation of education |
Increases life evaluation but may decrease EWB because of stress |
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What 3 thing primarily affect EWB |
Ill health Religion Having kids |
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What increases life eval |
Wealth |
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What are the 3 Kahneman and Tversky heuristics |
Anchoring and Adjustment Availability Representativeness |
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What is the law of small numbers |
People take small samples to provice accurate estimates just as large samples do, but they yield extreme results nore often than large samples do |
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What is the misperceptions of randomness |
It does not imply uniformity |
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What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic |
People use a specific target number or value as a starting point, known as an achnor, and subsequently adjusts that info |
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What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic |
People use a specific target number or value as a starting point, known as an achnor, and subsequently adjusts that info |
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Whats an example of the anchoring or adjustment heuristic |
Wheel of fortune rigged to stop at 10 or 65 Ppts asked whether the proportion of nations in the UN that are African is smaller or bigger than that number, then asked to estimate 10 = 25% 65 = 45% Correct = 30 |
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If adjustment is a deliberate process, what system is this |
2 |
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What is a real world example of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic |
Estate agent valuing real properties with high and low anchors showed anchoring, showed anchoring effect (distance between final estimates) of 40% |
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What is the availability heuristic |
Mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision Based on retrieval of memory Ease of recall |
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What is the availability heuristic an example of |
Substitution of questions (How common translates to how easily can i think of examples) |
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What is the famous name demonstration of the availability heuristic |
In a balanced list of names, ppts believed there were more women (or men) if the women (or men) are more famous |
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2 examples of domestics in the availability heuristic |
People tend to overestimate their relative contribution to household chores People also overestimate their contribution to causing arguments |
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What is a wrinkle on the availability heuristic lol |
If ppts asked to list 6 or 12 instances of recent situations, those that are asked for more tend to find it harder and end up believing the opposite (that the situ happens less than in 6 instance condition) |
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What is the representativeness heuristic |
Make a judgement of whether something is of a certain kind by how well it fits with your prototype or stereotype of what they are like Based on judgements of similarity |
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What experiment is linked to the representativeness |
Tom W experiments Computer science or humanities Much more likely to be humanities, base rate Chose to ignore what they do know - base rate Base judgement on how well descriptions of Tom W fit typical grad student for computer science (even tho told info is crap) over how likely he would be based on base rates |
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What are the 2 problems with using representativeness |
Ignoring base rates Using poor (or even useless) info |
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What is the conjunction fallacy |
The Linda problem Linda is a bank teller or bank teller and active in the feminist movement |
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Less is more example |
2 dinner sets, 1 with same as other and a few more good items and a few broken items People put off by broken things |
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Study in base rates vs casual stories |
The blue green cab stories |
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What is hindsight bias |
Knew-it-all-along effect Inclination to see event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective bias for predicting it |
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Whats the illusion of understanding |
We believe our narrarives explain what happened and that we understand the world |
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What is outcome bias |
Events judged by their actual outcome, not whether the decisions were good ones when they were made |
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What is the illusion of validity |
Overestimating ability to interpret and predict accurately the outcome when analysing data (specifically when data shows pattern) E.g. assessing the potential of recruits in Army - confident but judgements little better than useless |
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What is the illusion of skill |
Some experts are not experts |
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2 examples of experts not being experts |
Stock trades by brokers Political pundits (ppl offering opinion to mass media) |
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Are clinical or statistical predictions better (Meehl) |
Statistical does better in ~60% of cases |
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2 Dawes-type examples of predictions using multiple regression |
Marital stability (love making and quarrels) The Apgar test for worryingly poor breathing in newborns (rate 5 criteria and add up) |
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What are the 2 crucial conditions that allow for intuition to work well/better |
Regular environments (make judgements and get feedback) Practice in those environments |
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3 negative outcomes of optimistic bias |
Planning fallacy (underestimate time needed) Belief in a Benign World (kind) Belief in the Ability to Forecast Future |
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3 positive outcomes of optimistic bias |
Tend to do better in life Be more influential Be healthier |
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What theory says weight the attributes according to their importance and combine the values of each object on each attribute to get an overall utility |
Multi attribute utility theory |
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What does homo economicus mean |
Attempting to maximise utility using rational assessments |
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What is marginal utility |
The satisfaction Value of a fixed sum of money decreases as the amount it is added to increases |
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How is the prospect theory a tweak of the utility theory |
Takes the normative theory (prescriptive based on assumptions) and changes it into a descriptive theory |
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What does the utility theory lack |
Reference point of the status quo (Jack n Jill have £5M, yesterday Jack had 1, Jill had 9, whos happier) |
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What is the crucial assumption of prospect theory |
Outcomes should be defined in terms of gains and losses, not absolute utility levels |
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What does golf putts show for loss aversion |
People doing a bit better (3.6%) if trying to avoid a loss (par) rather than seen as a gain (birdie) |
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Which framing is better in gambling |
Broad, wider view - long term benefit over loss |
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For gains/losses, when are people risk seeking/averse where the uncertain gains/losses are high probability |
Risk averse for gains Risk seeking for losses |
E.g. £900 for sure or 90% chance of £100 |
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For gains/losses, when are people risk seeking/averse where the uncertain gains/losses are low probability |
Risk seeking for gains Risk averse for losses |
E.g. £9 for sure or 0.9% chance of £1000 |
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What is the name of this |
The fourfold pattern |
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5 other deviations from the normative theory |
The endowment effect Probabilities Allais paradox Mental accounting Framing |
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5 other deviations from the normative theory |
The endowment effect Probabilities Allais paradox Mental accounting Framing |
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What is the endowment effect |
Effect of ownership - people demand much more to give up object than they would be willing to pay to require it |
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What does the endowment effect contradict |
Coase theorem - ppls willingness to pay rqual to willingness to accept |
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Do you see the endowment effect in market transitions |
No, no special attachment |
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In study of mug selling/bidding what was the difference in selling price |
Selling price approx 2x bid price |
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Are decision weights equal to probabilities according to Prospect theory? |
No, losses and gains transfer probabilities into decision weights |
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What are the distortions of probabilities? |
Sometimes v small probabilities are ignored If not, they are overweighted |
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Is the prospect theory faulted by the allais paradox? |
No |
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Is the mental accounting study, are people more likely to buy another ticket if they lost 10$ or the 10$ ticket |
10$ |
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What is mental accounting |
People allocate resources into different accounts |
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What is the sunk cost fallacy |
Your decisions are tainted by the emotional investments you accumulate |
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What is the framing effect |
Decide on options based on if the options are presented with positive or negative semantics E.g. accept gamble with a 10% chance to win £95, 90% to lose £5 or pay £5 for lottery ticket... |
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What problem is an example of the framing effect |
The asian flu problem |
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What does the asian flu problem show |
People prefer sure for good outcomes, but chose risky for bad outcomes as predicted by prospect theory |
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What did Gigerenzer argue about how argue is presented to overcome bad judgements |
People are better at dealing with absolute frequency info rather than probabilities or proportions (misleading) |
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Where particular does Gigerenzer suggest probabilities and frequencies are misleading |
Diagnosis |
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What are the 4 strands of work on the psychology of thinking |
Judgement and decision making (Deductive) reasoning Problem solving and expertise Creativity |
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How can you make the Wasons selection task easier? |
Make the rule a social rule e.g. if a newspaper is taken money must be payed Paper No £ No paper Money |
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What bias do people show in reasoning |
Belief Generate or accept conclusiojs that link terms in the problem to form sentences that conform to pre-existing beliefs, even if conclusions dont really follow |
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