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64 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Meaning Representations: Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA)
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Landauer & Dumais
meaning=list of features that make up a word LSA: meaning of language is embedded in words we use to communicate paragraph by word matrix, some words occur in many of the same paragraphs |
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multidimensional scaling approach
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statistical analysis
which words hang out with other words in the database take huge datasets and find which words co-occur at higher frequencies related to mediated priming: lion, tiger, stripes all have co-occuring frequency which is why there is mediated priming for lion from stripe. knowledge of a textbook from this analysis= B- |
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Meaning Representations: Small World Networks
(Graph Analytic Techniques) |
Stevens & Tennenbaum
Milgram=6 deg. of separation naturally developing networks have this structure, some nodes are higher connected to other nodes to search networks, search the highly interconnected hubs--some nodes are highly interconnected more so then chance, hub/node of interconnectivity node-connection relationship is modeled by the power function, average connection=3 preferential attachment: early nodes attract other nodes, more information to node increases the chance of more information to node free association of words follows small world structure because highly clustered hubs of some nodes with many connections |
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Resting State Functional Connectivity, Default Mode Networks
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Marcus Raichle
there is a whole network of activation in the brain just for resting state, co-actiation in brain while just lying there strongest network, most active when resting, turned off when working older adults do a bad job of turning off network at a given task early alzeheimer's adults increase activity of default mode at a given task LSA and GAT are descriptions of the default mode network |
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Meaning Representations: Embodied Cognition Idea
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Barasalou
meaning is represented by sensory motor interactions instead of dogness being represented by a list of features, it is by the perceptual visual information of a dog running by or feeling a dog's fur as you pet it meaning is embedded in perceptual motor systems, NOT at an abstract level |
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Lever Experiment
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"M GAVE J a present"
"M RECEIVED a present from J" lever moves towards and away from subject 1/2 subjects are told to move the lever away when the sentence is ungrammatical and towards them when it is 1/2/ subjects are told to move the lever towards them when sentence is ungrammatical and away from them when it is grammatical subjects are faster if moving the lever away from them when responding to the "GIVING present" sentence subjects are also faster if moving the lever towards them when responding to "RECEIVING present" sentence. |
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Spear & Zacks experiment
brain areas |
areas in the brain match up when reading certain things
read: riding a bike==> brain: motor area lights up read: bike ==> brain: visual area lights up this suggests intimate ties between the neural structures and what we're reading about |
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3 problems with imagery
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1) Introspection and Verbal Reports-->this is all inside your head, no qualititative disctinct type of representation
2) Variability in Population-->not everyone has the ability to have rich imagery powers 3) Mind's Eye--> what analyzes the information that the mind is looking at? what archetecture looks at our imagination and can it produce images as well? |
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Paivo: Concreteness Effect
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concrete=verbal + imaginative description
people are better at detecting concrete from abstract words |
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Dual Code Model experiment
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shown a graph of a big zebra (ZEBRA) and small lamp (lamp) then small zebra (zebra) and big lamp (LAMP)
asked in reality which is bigger? subjects always pick the first/LEFT button because in real life the zebra is always bigger. plot reaction time over pictures as far as congruency and incongruency, big zebra vs. big lamp smaller reaction time for congruent words/pictures (concreteness effect) than for incongruent pictures/words and for just words alone. |
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Shepard Mental Rotation Experiment
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subjects are presented with stimuli pairs of cube-block patterns (no match, picture-plane [rotate within plane] and depth [rotate within depth] and asked to decide if you can rotate 1 pattern to match the other. trying to find if there is a systematic mean function time to degree ratio for matching
linear relationships for both mean function time x degree of rotation for picture and depth planes--most time taken when there is mixed depth/picture plans when asked to decide if "R" is rotated or inverted, you see a linear relationship up to 180 deg rotation then linear back down--worst reaction time (takes the longest to say "no, not inverted" when the R is flipped 180 degrees) when given arrow cues on how to rotate the image to match, Shepard found that it takes time to rotate things and measures reaction time as a process of cue (CHECK) images are rotated in the mind through a functional space, similar to a physical space. |
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Kosslyn's approach to mental imagery
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presented subjects with a stimulus of an island with different patterns
see image: generate an image from the pattern: given cue, asked to focus attention to a new location in the image when plotting response latency x distance, Kosslyn found that the farther the new location is from the start, the longer it takes to move your attention to that new image...distance NOT intervening items predicts latency |
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imagery and size of objects
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people focus on the size of what you are focusing on
image a bunny and an elephant-->focus on the bunny's nose-->this process takes subjects longer because the nose is so small in comparison to the elephant. imagine a bunny and a bee-->focus on the bunny's nose-->now takes you faster because the nose is so big in comparison to the bee |
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Mental Walking Experiments
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generate an image of standing 100 feet away from a 1 vs. a 3-story house. mentally walk towards the house and raise your hand when the house starts to overflow the visual space
3-story house should cause you to raise your hand sooner than the 1-story house |
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Pylyshyn vs. Kosslyn
Roland & Frieberg 1985 more walking experiments |
visual walking activates the occipital area
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L.H. patient
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temporal deficits
when asked attribute questions like "Does the zebra have a tail?" LH is horrible compared to normal controls but when asked spatial questions and asked to make transformations, he does just as well. appears to be isolated deficits, if imagery is all the same then a person should be bad at both tasks but instead there are isolated deficits |
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Levine et al., Milner & Goodal
brain areas, what and where areas of visual processing |
within visual processing, the temporal area controls the what/naming of objects and the parietal area controls the where/placing of objects
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Risachi & Lazati
Parietal Neglect reporting on images |
where do people report from? do they report from their image of a location or to they translate and report from real life?
"imagine a plaza and orient yourself so you are in front of the cathedral, on which side are there buildings? (real life: RIGHT side)" people report buildings on LEFT side because they are reporting from their image, not actually the plaza in real life activation patterns converge with imagined perception if there is lots of overlap with perceptual and imagined systems, how can we tell if reality is different from imagination? |
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Johnson & Raye
Reality Monitoring experiment |
presented participants with a set of objects or labels
picture of a car vs. word "car" items can be repeated, frequency judgment task if imagination was so powerful, you shouldn't be able to discriminate between the frequency of seeing it and frequency of imagining it. but instead people who were presented with the image 2 times actually imagined it 5 times. show increase number of estimated number of times they thought they saw it. not that they couldn't make the discrimination but that there was a powerful breakdown in reality monitoring |
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Stevens and Loupe location experiment
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asked subjects a number of questions about geographical locations and figured out how spatial biases influence image generation.
ex. which is further west? san diego or reno? usually most people say san diego but in reality, it's reno old maps showed great exaggeration of space on the map as influenced by perceived bias of population density |
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Carbant & Leder Berlin Wall experiment
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after the Berlin Wall was taken down, people still thought East and West Berlin were far away, especially if you were strong in Communist values
shows how images are generated by context and other knowledge structures available. |
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Method of Loci
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A way of memorizing things by imaginging physcial locations with the items to be memorized
Ben Pridmore (memorized an entire set of cards) |
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Haber & Haber eye tracking experiment
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150 children were presented with a picture then asked how many stripes were on the kitten? The picture was then taken away and 12 children made an eye movement to count the stripes
their eye movements looked as if the picture was still on the screen as well they spoke in the present, not past tense so they were extraordinarily good at getting information on the curve, there is a constellation of behavior that looks distinct from the normal distribution |
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dual code model
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suggests two codes and two storage systems, one is image-based, one is word-based-->information is coded in either or both of these formats
concrete words are usually processed faster and with greater ease a picture would be high in imagery, low in verbal a concrete word would be medium in imagery and high in verbal an abstract word would be non-existent in imagery and high in verbal. |
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Pylyshyn remarks on spatial imagery
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spatial representation is an epiphenomenon, accompanies a real mechanism but is not actually a part of it
the sensation of "seeing" an image is real but that doesn't mean that the sensation has anything to do with the actual cognitive task being performed |
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definition of linguistics
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a formal description of language, grammar of language
set of rules that produce acceptable utterances in a language and describe the relationship amongst the elements in the utterance |
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what are the universals of linguistics
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1) Discreteness: set of discrete elements combined to produce novel forms in language discrete boundary
2) Arbitratiness: vast majority of all words in all langauges are arbitrary. some words are somewhat related to meaning but not really 3) openness: all languages are open, rules that allow infinite amount of combinations to be produced. recursive properties and recursive rules 4) duality of patterning: translate meaning into surface form |
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recursion
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the ability to produce an infinite number of sentences
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linguistic competence
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the set of rules for a language
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syntax
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the way words put together in sentences generate novel forms. performance demands cognitive architecture.
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transformational grammar
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active to passive transformations
"the tall woman threw the softball" "the softball was thrown by the tall woman" NP1 + V+ NP2 <---> NP2 + past tense aux verb + passive verb + NP1 |
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particle movement
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"the young lady picked up the crying baby"
"the young lady picked the crying baby up" NP1 + V + particle + NP2 <---> NP1 + V + NP2 + particle |
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optional deletion rule
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adding "the act of"
ex. "the act of flying planes can be dangerous" |
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Sachs experiment
cognitive archetecture, limitations in short term memory |
how good is our memory for sentences in connective discourse?
have subjects read a sentence then see if it matches what they just heard onyl 1 sentence matches one sentence changes the meaning 2 sentences change the formal wording map %correct onto # of syllables later and after 80 syllables all you have is meaning, make mistakes in rejecting wording because that the only thing that matters is meaning |
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Jarvella, sentence bounding experiments
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showed subjects 2 sentences:
1) "the tone of the document was threatening. Having failed to disprove the charges Taylor was fired by the president" 2) "the document had also blamed him for having failed to disprove the charges. Taylor was later fired by the president" what is the memory for B "having failed to disprove the charges"? 1) A(BC) 21% correct 2) (AB) C 54% correct sentence boundaries are important in dumping sentence structure. period uses to dump surface level information and extract meaningful information |
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Garden Path Model
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ambiguity requires context to code
1) rarely notice ambiguities 2) startle response |
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McKay ambiguity experiments
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lexical ambiguity: "After taking the [right] turn"
semantic ambiguity: "Although [visiting] relatives can be bothersome" people didn't notice the ambiguities and if they did, it didn't affect them-->goes against the Garden Path Model |
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Mixed Model of Ambiguity Resolution
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1) compute all interpretations
2) use context to select an interpretation 3) clause boundaries are the markers that force selection 4) if wrong selection, attempt to recover surface structure to resolve ambiguity |
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Bever (un)ambiguous, clause boundaries experiments
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Subjects shown 4 conditions:
Ambiguious, before clause boundary= Although flying planes can... Ambiguous, after clause boundary = Although flying planes can be dangerous, he... Unambiguous, before clause boundary = Although some planes can... Unambigous, after clause boundary = Although some planes can be dangerous AB = 1400 AA = 1000 UB = 1100 UA = 1000 if you follow the ambiguity across a clause boundary, there is not much of an influence fits with the Mixed Model |
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Swiney listening experiments
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person with headphones listening to words, non-words while reading words, non-words
"the janitor was surprised to find spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room" present: ant (related, biased), spy (related, unbiased), sew (unrelated, unbiased) ant and spy had lower reaction times than sew which fits, bc you expect facilitation for both interpretations of bug strong evidence for multiple interpretations of the word |
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how to early alzeheimers and schizophrenic patients respond to the Swinney paradigm?
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they show priming for inappropriate interpretations
can't control activation, disproportionate Stroop effects. |
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Chomsky's rules on language
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1) children acquire certain forms of language in abrupt shifts
2) past tense verbs, irregulars, present tense---->past tense irregulars --->overapply the past tense rule "goed" "wented"---->discriminate between regular and irregular |
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Bence and plurilization experiments
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showed non word animal (wug), asked children to make it plural--they said "wugs"
children have rule for plurilization |
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Brown & Hanlon gramattical approval experiments
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measured how many times a parent either approved "good job!" or dissaproved "no" or "silence" a grammatical or ungrammatical sentence
G, A: 83 G, D: 40 UG, A: 70 UG, D: 29 if parents are really teaching grammar then parents disapprove appropriate grammar, but not always focused on grammar sometimes disapproval is for semantics or vice versa and this sends mixed reward/punishment signals |
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evidence for a language acquisition device
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1) critical periods and species-specific learning systems--there si a critical period in the brain speicific in time to learn particular behavior
2) lorenz=ethology=imprinting |
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Birdsongs
Marler and Nottenbohm |
Marler=critical period for male sparrows to learn thier song
Nottenbohm= is there neural imprinting for the finch? disconnected syrynx fromt he left/right heimisphere of male finches who knew thier song if disconnected from the left hemispehere->couldn't produce the song if disconnected fromt he right hemisphere-->could still produce songs if operated on a young finch who didn't know thier song, then it doesn't matter the hemisphere you disconnect |
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Lenneberg's rules
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1) critical period ends at puberty, the left hemisphere is critical for language for ex. in Down Syndrome, langauge seems to develop until puberty then a plateau, in some, langague doesn't fully develop
2) recover from trauma better before puberty, there is more flexibility: Kennard principle, there is a negative linear relationship between age of lesion and brain outcome, young brains reorganize more effectively than old brains 3) 2nd language acquisition: brain is very rapidly able to learn 2 langauges, there is minimal cost--slight lag behind by 1 month? some brain areas are used for one language specifically or many in common but the earlier you learn the more overlap there is |
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Genie
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raised in isolation of language until puberty, from 20 months-->13 years and 7 motnhs
physically punished if produced sounds, no passive->active transfer only in active form no linguistic abilty, could learn aspects of langauge, vocab only able to communicate but didn't know syntax Right Ear Advantage: Usually dichotic listening tests show a right-ear advantage for speech sounds. Right-ear/left-hemisphere advantage is expected, because of evidence from Broca's area and Wernicke's area, which are both located in the left hemisphere. In contrast, the left ear (and therefore the right hemisphere) is often better at processing nonlinguistic material.[13] The data from the emotional dichotic listening task is consistent with the other studies, because participants tend to have more correct responses to their left ear than to the right Genie was right handed but didn't show the advantage becuase words in the left hemisphere |
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Language areas of the brain
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Broca's area connected (thought) by the Arcuate Fasculus to the Wernicke's area which is connected by the angualr grus to the visual input areas
Heschel's gyrus is the first cortical area to process auditory information |
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Broca's aphasia
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Patient Tan who had lesion in : Broca's area
gestural information frustrated at first, great difficulty producing language mostly use nouns and verbs and leave out connective words productive aphasia good language comprehension |
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Wernicke's lesion
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token task, find the meaning of the word by trying to match cards
people with Wernicke's lesion don't recognize thier issues as much engage in a convestaion that their speech is devoid of meaning speech is fluid but semantics are broken down receptive aphasia comprehension is poor |
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No Arcuate Fusciculus!
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conduction aphasics
look like Wernicke's aphasics, don't use ands or buts which are important in the fluency of a langague speech fluency good, can comprehend what was said but can't repeat it back are aware of the errors but can't correct them |
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lesions and diagnosis
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anterior lesion-->~Broca's
posterior lesion-->~Wernicke's should diagnose based on the behavior because if you have a lesion but no behavioral issues then there should be no problem |
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lexical and sublexical words
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lexical (semantic system) pathway-->map spelling onto entire words
sublexical (grapheme to phoneme) pathway-->match spelling to sound subjects are presented with a word visually and asked to pronounce outloud...how long does this take plot reaction time x regular vs. exception common words that don't have spelling->sound matchup (save) are at same reaction time as lower frequency but good spelling-->sound match up (hint). at exception words, low frequency bad spelling->sound matchup words (pint) have high reaction time and high frequency bad spelling->sound match up words (have) have low reaction time |
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dyslexia
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surface dyslexia: breakdown in the lexical pathway, sublexical in tact
mess up on words with bad spelling->sound matchup, bad with exception words, often regulate them pint=bad, flip=good nonwords are ok, becuase of sublexical sounds phonological dyslexia: breakdown in th esublexical pathway, fine for regular, irregular words but bad with non-words, can't do or words they don't know acquired dyslexics=lesion after learning how to read |
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implications for teaching
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kids that were taught with whole word approaches to reading so never taught the spelling->sound correspondence, are more likely to produce phonological dyslexia symptoms
eventually you learn rules by leaning lots of words but you really do need some sort of explict rules |
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Tversky and Kahnman decision making experiments
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availibiltiy impacts your decision-making
when asked how many words begin with 'k' vs. have 'k' as the 3rd letter you say there are more that begin with 'k' because you have more exampels availible when given a list of 20 women and 19 men where the women are more famous, subjects report there were way more women becuase of the fame issue |
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Slovic, Fuschoff and Lichtenstein media death experimetns
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Gave subjects a list of events taht you could die from and asked to predict how lilkely it was that you would suffer an event (given the ratio of dangerousness comparing the two events)
subjects always picked the events with more media attention because there were more availablity, even tho less likely |
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Wright and Bower mood induction experiments
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mood induction changes your likeihood
subjects induced to a positve or negative mood then asked to imagine the likelihood of either winning and award or having an injury +, award: 52% +, injury: 38% -, award: 37% -, injury: 52% depending on what mood your in, it makes certain probabiltiy events seem more likely (in matching with mood) |
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representativeness and expectations
baby gender experiment |
which is more likely to be the gender order given your expectation that sex will be random but equally likely to occur?
BBBGGG vs. BGGBGB? people pick the 2nd more, but both are actually equal chances hospital with 100 kids of 60 girls and 40 boys hospital with 1000 kids of 600 girls and 400 boys-->this is less liekly becuase of a larger sample we ignore base rate! |
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Bayesian probability
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asks you to always consider the base rate probability
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Sternuistetal complex decisions experiment
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not good to attend to complex decisions because you will get too wrapped up in it
subjects asked which of 4 cars they would prefer: 1) 25% positive, 75% negative 2) 50% positive, 50% negative 3) 50% positive, 50% negative 4) 75% postive, 25% negative judge based on 4 attributes vs. 12 attributes 1/2 asked to do a unconscous processign task for 4 minutes plot % choice correct over 4 vs. 12 attributes find that at 4 attribtues, better to consciously process but at 12 attributes, better to have done the unconscious processing task if thinking of your options you may be consciously led astray by thinking too much because it is more availble |
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ikea vs. target experiment
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interview subjects leaving ikea where there are more attributes vs. target with a cheap purchase
after thinking about ikea for a while, subjects are less happy than with their simple purchase |
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Garden path model
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initially suggests one parse/interpretation which turns out to be wrong, linguistic context helps people avoid being garden-pathed
As a person reads a garden path sentence, the reader builds up a structure of meaning one word at a time. At some point, it becomes clear to the reader that the next word or phrase cannot be incorporated into the structure built up thus far; it is inconsistent with the path down which they have been led. Garden path sentences are less common in spoken communication because the prosodic qualities of speech (such as the stress and the tone of voice) often serve to resolve ambiguities in the written text. |
