Cognitive Psychology Exam 2

Front 1

What are the 2 types of Memory for General Knowledge?

Back 1

Episodic and Semantic

Front 2

Characteristics of Episodic Memory

Back 2

1. memory for specific events in which you were somehow involved
2.more blood flow to the frontal lobe with episodic retrieval
3. the difference isn't the type of info, it's whether or not you have awareness of the learning episode.

Front 3

Characteristics of Semantic Memory

Back 3

1. No info regarding the circumstances in which the info was acquired.
2. the difference isn't the type of info, it's whether or not you have awareness of the learning episode.

Front 4

Evidence for Separate Memory Systems

Back 4

1. Amnesiacs (one type damaged, other intact)
2. Blood flow (more in frontal lobe for episodic)

Front 5

Collins and Quillan Hierarchical Model of Semantic Memory

Back 5

1. cognitive economy - avoid storing abundant information
2. store info at highest possible (most general) level
3. 2 types of links - "is a" and property links
4. 3 assumptions (next card)

Front 6

3 Assumptions of the Collins and Quillan model of semantic memory

Back 6

1. retrieving a property and traversing the hierarchy take time
2. times are additive
3. times are level independent

Front 7

How was the Collins/Quillan model tested?

Back 7

Sentence variation task

Front 8

Problems with the Collins/Quillan model

Back 8

1. the model predicts that "a dog is a mammal" should be faster than "a dog is an animal" but it's not.
2. can't handle negative sentences (a dog is a lightbulb should take forever to go through the whole hierarchy but we know right away it's not)
3. doesn't account for typicality effects. for example, we're quicker to classify banana as a fruit than olive, even though they're both fruits.

Front 9

Collins/Loftus Speading Activation Theory

Back 9

1. When processing a concept, activation spreads to related concepts.
2. if what you're processing is already partially activated, it saves time

Front 10

Assumptions of the Collins/Loftus theory

Back 10

1. activation spreads on all paths
2. activation spreads in parallel
3. activation decreases over time
4. complex decision rules on negative trials (what?)

Front 11

What is the lexical decision test?

Back 11

Asks you to indicate whether stimulus shown is a word or not.

Front 12

The coglab on priming showed us:

Back 12

1. we have a faster response to the test item (target) when the preceding item (prime) is related compared to when it's unrelated

Note: you cannot detect the relationship until the 2nd word is shown

Front 13

What 2 types of processes affect priming?

Back 13

1. automatic processes
2. strategic processes

Front 14

Automatic processes (as they relate to priming)

Back 14

1. pre-existing relationship (doctor - nurse, fire - hot)
2. priming will be found even with very short SOA's

Front 15

Strategic processes (as they relate to priming)

Back 15

1. not pre-existing, but you're told to expect them
example: "if you see bird, the next word will be a building"
2. effects only seen at long SOA's; it takes a while to activate the strategy
3. can facilitate OR inhibit response based on current expectations

Front 16

Who tested the 2 types of processes affecting priming?

Back 16

Neely (1977)
bird-bird vs. bird-building

Front 17

Prediction we make for the bird-bird relationship

Back 17

1. automatic process, so should be seen at low SOA's

Front 18

Prediction for bird-building

Back 18

2. strategic process, so should be seen at long SOA's.

Front 19

What is the advantage and the disadvantages of the spreading activation theory?

Back 19

Advantage - simple, intuitive, explains a lot of data
Disadvantages - vague, hard to make predictions, trouble with mediated priming

Front 20

Mediated Priming

Back 20

1. Priming when there is no obvious pre-existing semantic relationship

Example: lion > tiger > stripes
mane > lion > tiger > stripes

Front 21

Problem with mediated priming

Back 21

Assuming each item can prime 20 others, and each of these can activate another 20, and each of these can activate another 20, the amount of possible primed words is unrealistic

Front 22

Connectionist Model of Memory

Back 22

1. "items" not stored in memory
2. instead, info is stored as pattern of neural activity
Example: TV (not really a picture, just patterns of pixels)

Front 23

Components of Connectionist Model

Back 23

1. nodes - like neurons
2. connections
3. connection weights

Front 24

Algebra as an analogy for connectionist model

Back 24

4x + 2y = z

we don't store all possible values of "z"; we determine it after GIVEN input.

Front 25

Declarative vs. Procedural Memory

Back 25

declarative - we can state it verbally (H20 is water)

procedural - know how to do something (ride a bike) but can't verbalize the memory

Front 26

Implicit vs. Explicit memory

Back 26

implicit - not deliberate or conscious, but shows evidence of prior learning and storage (knowing how to walk to class automatically)

explicit - consciously recollected (her name was ____)

Front 27

Implicit learning test coglab (old)

Back 27

instructions: press key when dot appears

dots occur in complex pattern (experimental) or random (control group)

in control, RT decreases due to practice

in exp, same pattern is shown every time except block 10, RT decreases dramatically EXCEPT for block 10. (block 10 reaction time is the same as RT in the beginning of the experiment)

Front 28

In the coglab discussed, how do the results give evidence for implicit memory?

Back 28

1. decrease in RT across trials
2. increase in RT for block 10
3. most people have no conscious knowledge of the pattern

Front 29

How did the Tower of Hanoi serve to prove that explicit and implicit memory are separate systems?

Back 29

Amnesiacs and control group both showed improvement over time, but the amnesiacs could not remember ever solving the puzzle before.

Front 30

Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970):
Implicit and Explicit memory

Back 30

Used amnesiacs and controls.
Explicit test used: free recall and recognition (was this on the list?)
Implicit test used: word-fragment completion and word+stem completion.

Amnesiacs score poorly on explicit, but about equal as controls for implicit.
(have not found anyone who scores well on explicit but not implicit)

Front 31

What is a concept?

Back 31

A mental representation of some object, event, or pattern.

Front 32

What is a category?

Back 32

A class of similar things (objects or entities) that share 1 of 2 things: essential core or appearance, function, and biological properties.

Front 33

What are the 4 views of categorization?

Back 33

1. Classical
2. Prototype
3. Exemplar
4. Knowledge-Based

Front 34

According to the classical view of categorization, what are "defining features"? (2 parts)

Back 34

1. required for category membership
2. all members of the category share it.

Front 35

Defining features must be both ______ and ______.

Back 35

1. necessary (every member must have it)
2. sufficient (having it is enough to be in the category)

Front 36

Assumptions of the classical view of categorization

Back 36

1. concepts mentally represent lists of features
2. concepts to not hold specific examples
3. category membership is all or none
4. all members are created equal (you can't be a "better" chair)

Front 37

Problems for the classical view of categorization

Back 37

1. people don't have lists of representative features (what are the features of a game?)
2. category membership is not all or none (is a bookend furniture? answers fluctuate)
3. all members not created equal ("better" triangle - due to typicality effects)

Front 38

How does family resemblance relate to the prototype view of categorization?

Back 38

* each member has a number of features
* each member shares different features with different members
* few (if any) features are shared with every single member

Front 39

What is a prototype?

Back 39

the best of more representative member of a category.
* usually mathematical average - may not exist in real life
* used as a model for comparison when deciding if something fits into a category

Front 40

How does the typicality effect relate to the prototype model?

Back 40

more typical members of a category share more features with the prototype

Front 41

Problems with the prototype view of cagegorization:

Back 41

1. effect of set size (faster with smaller categories than larger ones)
2. effect of category homogeniety - faster with categories whose members are more similar to each other

Front 42

Prototype Effect Coglab

Back 42

* present a stimulus, decide if it's A or B (but never see the actual prototype)
* at test, given actual prototypes with slight variations - faster for prototypes than variations even though it's our first time seeing both

Front 43

What is an exemplar?

Back 43

An example of a member of a category (we store these) - they are actual items that we associate strongly with the category (common member of the category)

Front 44

How does the exemplar model decide membership into categories?

Back 44

*membership is determined by comparing item to exemplar.
* if a new instance is sufficiently similar to the stored exemplar, it is a member of the group

Front 45

Problems with the prototype and exemplar views:

Back 45

1. similarity is not consistent - judgments of similarity are inconsistent based on superficial changes (such as context)
2. both views have trouble defining "similarity"

Front 46

According to the knowledge-based view of categorization, [concept] is to [example of the concept] as [theory] is to...

Back 46

...data supporting the theory.

Front 47

Prototype Effect Coglab

Back 47

* present a stimulus, decide if it's A or B (but never see the actual prototype)
* at test, given actual prototypes with slight variations - faster for prototypes than variations even though it's our first time seeing both

Front 48

What is an exemplar?

Back 48

An example of a member of a category (we store these) - they are actual items that we associate strongly with the category (common member of the category)

Front 49

How does the exemplar model decide membership into categories?

Back 49

*membership is determined by comparing item to exemplar.
* if a new instance is sufficiently similar to the stored exemplar, it is a member of the group

Front 50

Problems with the prototype and exemplar views:

Back 50

1. similarity is not consistent - judgments of similarity are inconsistent based on superficial changes (such as context)
2. both views have trouble defining "similarity"

Front 51

According to the knowledge-based view of categorization, [concept] is to [example of the concept] as [theory] is to...

Back 51

...data supporting the theory.

Front 52

According to the knowledge-based view of categorization, do we compare features or similarities between entities?

Back 52

Nope.

Front 53

How do we categorize according to the knowledge-based view?

Back 53

*use knowledge of how the concept is organized to justify classification and explain why certain instances happen to go together in the same category.

* people's theories and mental explanations are bound with their concepts and are used to categorize.

Front 54

Describe Ebbinghaus's study

Back 54

* created lists of nonsense syllables
* measured # repetitions needed to learn the list
* waited for certain periods of time
* measured # reps needed to RElearn
* calculate percent savings

Front 55

How is percent savings calculated?

Back 55

T1 = time to learn
T2 = time to re-learn
(100) * ( T1 - T2 ) / T1

Front 56

Levels of Processing - Memory Retrieval

Back 56

* memory depends on how deeply you encode the material

Front 57

In the levels of processing model of memory retrieval, are rehearsal and intent to learn important?

Back 57

Noooo.

Front 58

Deep vs Shallow processing
(with cotton as an example)

Back 58

shallow - how many letters? sounds like rotten.

deep - cotton comes from a plant, it's soft and white, etc

Front 59

What study investigated whether intent to learn was important for memory retrieval AND whether depth of processing was important?

Back 59

Hyde and Jenkins (1973)
* incidental - not aware of upcoming test
* intentional - aware of upcoming test
* incidental and intentional group for each level of processing

RESULTS - depth important, intent not important

Front 60

Problems with the levels of processing model of memory retrieval:

Back 60

1. Circular measure of depth:
the processing was deep, because i recalled it well, but i recalled it well because it was deep...?

2. incorrect prediction - the model suggests that deep is always better but shallow CAN be better depending on the task

Front 61

Morris et. al. (1977) study of deep and shallow processing

Back 61

* investigated whether deep/shallow processing makes a difference based on the type of task
* For tasks requiring only shallow elements (do these words rhyme?) shallow is better
* For tasks requiring semantic understanding (sentence task), deep is better.

Front 62

What is does the transfer appropriate processing model tell us?

Back 62

Memory is better when the processing done at encoding is appropriate given the processing that will be required on the test.

Front 63

What is encoding specificity?

Back 63

The recollection of an event or a certain aspect of it depends on the interaction between the properties of the encoded event (what cues were present during encoding) and the properties of the retrieval information (during test).

Front 64

What are 4 examples of encoding specificity?

Back 64

1. context-dependent memory
2. state-dependent memory
3. mood-dependent memory
4. mood-congruent

Front 65

Context-dependent memory:

Back 65

memory is better when study and test environments are the same.

* Godden and Baddeley (1975)
study on land - better on land, study underwater - better underwater

Front 66

State-dependent memory:

Back 66

memory is better when the biological state at encoding is the same as during testing

(if you're drunk when you study, you recall better if you're drunk when you test...but not as well as if you're sober both times)

Front 67

Mood-dependent memory:

Back 67

memory is better if mood when studying is the same as mood during test

Front 68

Mood-congruent memory:

Back 68

mood you are IN during recall affects the TYPE (not performance) of information you remember. (if you were happy when you studied, more likely to remember happy things and vice versa)

Front 69

What is confabulation?

Back 69

supplying additional information and details that were not part of the original episode.

* you add info that most likely did happen
* usually details supplied by general knowledge, inference, and alternate events

Front 70

How can a memory change over time?

Back 70

As time goes on, we may add general knowledge, inferences, alternate events, etc since the event actually happened (every time we recall it, we add something new, and then recall that whole thing again)

Front 71

What is a schema?

Back 71

an organized knowledge structure that reflects an individual's knowledge, experience, and expectations about some aspect of the world.

Front 72

Schemas can influence how information is ____ and ____.

Back 72

1. encoded
2. retrieved

examples: laundry story, "going hunting" versus "escaped convict"

Front 73

What are flashbulb memories?

Back 73

Memories of highly surprising events that preserve the exact details of a scene, as if frozen by a photograph

Front 74

Are flashbulb memories more accurate?

Back 74

Not necessarily, but people are usually more confident about them.

NOTE: this is really hard to study, because finding a control group is a little ridiculous.

Front 75

How can eyewitness testimony be messed up?

Back 75

1. confabulation
2. attribution errors
3. inferences
4. being misled

Front 76

What is an attribution error?

Back 76

You remember something correctly, but it's attributed to the wrong source (Phoebe and Ross on Friends - dream)

Front 77

What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) study in terms of memory recall?

Back 77

The effects of inferences.

The cars smashed/contacted each other.

Front 78

What did Loftus and Burns (1978) study in terms of memory recall?

Back 78

How easy it is to mislead people.

Did another car PASS the red Datsun while it STOPPED at the _____ sign? (yield or stop)

Front 79

Can incentive have an effect on memory?

Back 79

Yes.

Front 80

Why is the term "false memory" misleading?

Back 80

it implies that there are "true" and "false" memories, when in fact all memories are false (we reconstruct them no matter what)

Front 81

How were false memories studied?

Back 81

given a list of related words that all relate to a "critical lure" that is not ever mentioned, later test to see if they "remember" seeing the critical lure.

Front 82

What is a confederate in the "remember when...?" study of implanted memories?

Back 82

Someone else who collaborates with the story - makes it more believable.