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84 Cards in this Set
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How do we use definitions to understand concepts? How do exceptions complicate the use of definitions in understanding concepts? How can we get around the exceptions, in the way we build our definitions?
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We use our definition like a checklist. Not all thingshave the same characteristics or make up of what the exact definition says, butcan still be considered that object. Probalistic phrasing of a definition helpsaddress the exceptions while preserving the common, relevant, and sensiblefeatures that describe the category.
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Wittgenstein:Attributes/characteristics vs. definitions – “family resemblance” and categorymembership
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Members of a family have a resemblance to one another, butno two are exactly the same. Me and morgan have brown hair and eyes, ryan isblonde and has blue eyes. Me and ryan are taller than morgan.
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Prototype Theory: What is a prototype?Where does it come from? How do we compare (e.g. reason about) new examples ofa category to our prototype?
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A prototype is our ideal version of a category. It’s theaverage of all the examples of a category that we have encountered. We see ifthey have the general characteristics and if they are more or less similar tothe prototype.
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What is typicality? How is measured bythe sentence verification, rating, and production tasks? What do these resultsshow? How does this support the prototype theory?
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Typicality is the representative characteristics that fitthe object. Sentence verification: given statements that connect a member to acategory like “a penguin is a bird” and then asked to respond T/F, responsetime collected. Since penguin doesn’t match the prototype of a bird it takeslonger to register. Production task: ask to name as many birds as you can, onewith the most characteristics will be named first. Rating task: asked to ratewhich birds are birdier than other birds. Birds that are easier to verify inthe sentence task are also produced first in the production task and are ratedhigh in the rating task. This supports the prototype theory because the morecommon objects are easier for us to recognize and use as examples.
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What are basic level categories? How dothey occupy a privileged space in our thinking, when compared to superordinateor subordinate categories?
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Basic level categories are the ones that are more specialor natural to us. It’s easier to list common features for basic levelcategories than superordinate or subordinate categories. For example: it’seasier to think of a bed as somewhere you sleep instead of furniture that is ina bedroom or asleep number type of bed.
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What is exemplar based reasoning? Howdoes it differ from prototype-based thinking? How is the phenomenon andtypicality and graded membership explained by exemplar reasoning?
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Exemplar based reasoning is referencing the understandingof a specific member of the category, rather than general prototypical info. Typicality:show pictures of fruit (apple in one scenario and fig in another). Since applesare more common it’s easy to come up with apple, but since fig’s are uncommonit’ll be harder. Similar to the graded membership, the more birds we encounterthe more often we will consider them to be a member of the category.
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We combine prototype and exemplar basedreasoning when we think – why do we do this? What are the advantages of eachapproach? How does our developmental stage and knowledge base influence whichmode of reasoning we tend to rely on?
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We want the best fit from each category so we cangeneralize it to many different kinds of an object. Prototype is a quicksummary of what is typical of a category. Exemplar provides variability that’slost from the prototype. Early learning involves exemplars but experienceallows us to come up with prototypes.
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Explain how the Amstrong and Gleitman“even number” experiment challenges the idea that we only put things into acategory when we find them to be typical.
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When things are recognizable and typical we usually placethem in a category that makes sense. In this example, the lower odd numbers areseen as more even because we see them more than the 3 or 4 digit odd numbers.
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How can deep properties explain why weinclude atypical members into the category?
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Not everything fits in our prototypes because of thedifferent characteristics. For example: a lemon is yellow, round, and sour. Alemon painted with stripes, is injected with sugar to make it sweet, andflattened is still a lemon.
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How did the toaster/coffee potexperiment show that the deep properties of categories vary?
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It shows that manmade objects are made up of similarthings and can be used to make different things. A coffee pot has some metaland holds things and so does the toaster.
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How does our knowledge base influenceour assumptions about which properties of categories are deep?
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Having knowledge means we have a better understandingabout how things work. In order for a skunk to be a skunk it has to have skunkparents
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What is a theory? How does it help us tocategorize and make inferences?
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Theories provide crucial knowledge base that you rely onin your thinking about objects. It allows us to decide whether or not things canhappen or if it’s possible. Ex: airplane made out of pudding can fly. It alsoallows us to make inferences and decide what things are or aren’t based onprototypes.
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We reason differently about differenttypes of concepts depending on our beliefs and understandings: Natural conceptsvs. artifacts, categories based on features, goals, relations/events
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Natural kinds: categories for objects that existnaturally.Artifacts: manmade objectPeople tend to assume more homogeneity and stability aboutnatural kinds than artifacts. Categories can be characterized by features(dogs, chairs both have four legs), goals (exercise equipment can help you loseweight), and relations/events (a date is a social interaction between twopeople).
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How does brain damage to the temporalpole, inferotemporal region, and lateral occipital region impact the way thatpatients reason about categories?
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They lose the ability to name or answer questions aboutcertain types of objects. Temporal pole has difficulty naming persons,inferotemporal region has trouble with animals and the lateral occipital regionhas trouble with tools.
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What is a knowledge network? How arethey diagrammed?
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Info in long term is represented through a network.Associative links don’t simply connect up the knowledge so you can use them totravel the network and find info.
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Direct/indirect links and response timeon sentence verification tasks
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Ask true or false questions.Is a robin a bird?The link between the node robin and the node bird showsthe relationship between the ideas, since the link exists it would be true.
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Storage of redundant information?
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Supraordinate categories can obtain features of allanimals more efficiently
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Qualifiers (not accounted for by theknowledge network)
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Respond faster to robin is a bird than ostrich is a bird.If feature of member is very prominent may be activated quickly.
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What are propositional networks? Howare they diagrammed? How do they add to the concept of knowledge networks? Whyis this a local representation model?
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Our knowledge network is more than simple associationsbetween concepts.Sam - is/has -dogA simple connection would not help us differentiate thesetwo different types of relationships.
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Connectionist networks – define anddistinguish from local representation models.
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Utilize parallel distributed processing since activationhas to be simultaneous and widespread enough to activate the relateddistributed patterns. If remembering involves activation of a set ofconnections than learning involves settling and adjusting the weight of thoseconnections.
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How does learning alter the function ofnetworks?
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If two nodes are activated at same time then theconnection between them is strengthened and if not then it’s weakened.
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Hierarchical structure of language:Define phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence, idea and understand how thesecomponents combine to form language? Are there any constraints on thesecombinations?
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Idea-sounds-perceived- ideasHierarchical structure allows individual parts to berecombined in many different ways. Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that can be used todistinguish a wordMorpheme: alter the meaning of base, past/present/futuretensesWord: composed of morpheme that carries meaningPhrase: a group of words put togetherSentence: coherentsequences of words that express the intended meaning of a speaker Idea: multiple sentences together to create somethingmore
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What is phonology? How do we make the soundsof speech? What is voicing? How does the manner of production and the place ofarticulation alter the sound we produce?
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Phonology is making sounds of speech. The flow of airin/out of the lungs and cut through of the nose and mouth during breathing.Voicing is the rapidly opening and closing vocal folds in the larynx. Narrowingthe passage of air within the mouth allows us to create different sounds.
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What is speech segmentation? Why is itimportant? Why does it disappear when you are listening to a language that youdon’t understand?
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When we listen and figure out where one sound ends and thenext one begins in order to construct meaning. It is important so we canunderstand language and what people are saying. It is disappearing when wedon’t understand a different language because we don’t have the skills tosegment the stream because it is unfamiliar to us.
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What is coarticulation? How does itcomplicate the process of speech perception?
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Coarticulation is when we produce speech, we don’t utterit one phoneme at a time, and the phonemes run into each other and overlap. Itcomplicates the process because it is altered based on what comes before orafter it.
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How do we build speech perception usingbottom up processing? How do we use top down knowledge perceive speech(phenomic restoration effect)?
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We build morphemes from phonemes and words from morphemeswhich is considered bottom up processing. We use top down processing using thephonemic restoration effect by recording small amounts of speech- go in andmodify the recording to insert a burst of white noise in place of a phoneme andreplace the “degraded” stimulus back into the sentence. For example: take theword legislature and take out the s and it sounds the same.
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How do we combine phonemes to makemorphemes? How do we learn these rules? Do these rules of language existbecause they represent intrinsic limits on the function of our tongue, our earand our brain? Are they consciously applied?
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We can add sounds to the word to combine phonemes to makemorphemes, but you can’t always put sounds at the beginning and end of words.We learn these rules by adjustment and experience. Rules are not an intrinsiclimit on what the human tongue can produce what the ear can hear, or what thebrain can perceive, but are unconsciously applied.
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What is orthography, syntax, andsemantics?
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Orthography: how word is spelledSyntax: structure into a sentenceSemantics: meaning
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Explain the concept of the generativityof language.
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The generativity of language is fluid and new words can beformed and words can take on new meanings. As we improve technology and add todifferent qualities of life new words are formed and mean different things.
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Understand the rules of syntax wediscussed in class.
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How we combine words with other words1. Rules govern therequirement for a referent (object)2.Rules govern thesequencing of words/phrases in a sentence3.Rules help us understandrelationship between words in a sentence
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What is phrase structure? How doesphrase structure help us by organizing and mapping the sentence?
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The phrase structure is determined to organize a sentence.You have a determiner, an adjective and a verb. The phrase structure helps usto understand the sentence by providing a road map.
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What is sentence parsing? How do we parsesentences? What is minimal attachment? What is a garden-path sentence?
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Parsing a sentence involves determining each word’ssyntactic role- the phrase structure of a sentence. Most people parse as theyare reading, but you can parse at the end of a sentence. Minimal attachment isthe simplest parsing structure. Assume the active voice so the initial nounphrase assumed to be the “doer”. The garden path sentence initially leads oneto an interpretation that is wrong. For example: The old man the ships. Theverb is man not ships.
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Compare the N400 wave when we processsentences that have a semantic or meaning violation (e.g. don’t make sense) vs.a word knowledge violation (make sense but are untrue) vs. control sentences(make sense and true) – what does this tell us about the role of knowledge inthe early stages of sentence processing?
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Dutch trains and the word knowledge violation spark.Figure 10.12
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How does the linguistic and extralinguistic context help us parse and interpret sentences appropriately?
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Context of the conversation helps you parse the sentenceand interpret it properly. Extra linguistic context matters, the physical andsocial context in which you encounter the statements. Figure 10.13
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How does prosody influence the sentenceparsing and perception? How does listening to the Lewis Carroll poem in class(as opposed to reading it) demonstrate the utility of prosody?
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Prosody is the rise and fall of speech intonation andpattern of pauses. Listening to Lewis Carroll’s poem can help to identify thetheme of the sentence by directing the listeners’ attention- and highlightingits intended structure of the sentence.
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Distinguish fluent from nonfluentaphasia
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Fluent aphasia: talk freely, but don’t make senseNonfluent aphasia: adequate verbal comprehension, unableto produce coherent language
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How does “nurture” influence the developmentof language? How does “nature” influence the urge to communicate via language(e.g. home sign language in deaf children)
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You learn from what you experience at home with yourparents (nurture) and you may learn your own home sign language if you’re deaf.The nature part influences the urge to communicate via language because you aretrying to speak and show many of the formal structures of language universal tolanguages in the world.
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What is the evidence that children (atvery young ages) are able to detect statistical patterns in the language theyhear? What other tools do they use to derive syntax and understand language?
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At 8 months old, babies stream syllables that have anintrinsic pattern. They learn theses patterns and showed no surprises when theywere presented with strings that followed the same pattern. Children also derive syntax/understoodlanguage by relying on knowledge of semantic relationships and prosody in whichadults exaggerate rhythm and pitch to help them understand.
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What is an overregularization error?
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When kids first begin to talk and can briefly understandpast tense or multiple tenses they usually over regularize and make errors. Forexample: instead of changing the word they add –ed to the end of it, “I go-edto the playground.”
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Distinguish communication system of languagein humans from that used by other animals.
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Other species have communication systems, but have alimited vocabulary and little rules and structure of syntax.
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Kanzi the bonobo: How does hecommunicate? How well does he communicate? Does his language demonstrategenerativity?
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Kanzi communicates through a lexigram. He communicatespretty well and when he doesn’t know words (like flood) he uses other words(lots of water) to help understand or create what he knows. His language doesdemonstrate generativity such as the flood example.
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Explain the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and theprinciple of linguistic relativity
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The linguistic relativity principle says that the languageyou speak directly impacts culture and that culture influences language. Theirhypothesis argues against a more universal conception of language.
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What is the evidence that differences inlanguage cross-culturally relate to differences in color perception and spatialcognition?
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Color perception: some languages have many words forcolors while other languages have only a few words to describe colors. Peoplewho have more words for colors are more likely to make distinctions between twosimilar looking colors.Spatial cognition: some languages have words to indicate“absolute direction” (longitude and latitude) while others have words forrelative direction (left and right).
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Explain how language can indirectlyshape thought by guiding attention – how can this be tested? What are theimplications of this for the consistency or permanence of the effects oflanguage?
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If it’s your experience that shapes thoughts then languagecould influence your experience by being one factor that influences what youpay attention to. In this model, the effects of language are detectable, butaren’t consistent or permanent.
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What is bilingualism? How common is it?How does it build cognitive flexibility? What are the positive consequences ofthis flexibility?
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Bilingualism is being able to speak two languages. It ismore common today than it ever has been (1/3 of US population speaks twolanguages). This cognitive flexibility encourages better executive control,avoiding distraction, switching between competing tasks, and working memorytasks while they work on another type.
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What is inductive and deductive reasoning?
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Inductive reasoning: A pattern of reasoning in which a person seeks to drawgeneral claims from specific bits of evidence. Deductive reasoning: A process through which a person startswith claims, or general assertions, and asks what further claims necessarilyfollow from these premises
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How do we use frequency estimates tomake judgments?
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Judgments often begin with frequency estimates. Anassessment of how often various events have occurred in the past.
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What are attribution substitutionheuristics? Why do we use them?
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Attribution substitution is a heuristic where we rely oneasily assessed info as a replacement for the info that we actually need toarrive at an accurate judgment. We use them because they’re efficient and quickand usually work but can also lead to errors.
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Availability heuristic: What is it? Whycan it lead you astray? How did the “6 vs 12 examples of assertiveness” studydemonstrate this heuristic?
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Rather than collecting all info you need, you base yourjudgment on how easily and quickly you can come up with the info. It can leave you astray because of how ourmemory is organized. It’s easier to come up with 6 examples of assertivenessthan it is for 12 examples. The ones who came up with 6 examples said they weremore assertive.
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Representativeness heuristic: What isit? Why can it lead you astray? How did the “compassionate vs. unfeeling prisonguard” study demonstrate this heuristic?
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When we make a judgment about a member of a category werealize that many categories are relatively homogeneous. It can lead you astraybecause we assume that each individual of a category has the traits weassociate with the category overall. The video of the prison guard demonstratedthis heuristic because it either agreed or disagreed with the originalgeneralization that the guard was compassionate or not.
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What is covariation and why is itimportant?
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Positive: when x exists, y exists and vise versaNegative: when x exists, y is absentThis is important because you consider covariation whenchecking a belief about cause and effect.
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What is illusory covariation?
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Perception that one variable predicts another
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How does confirmation bias and ignoringbase-rate information lead to illusory covariation?
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When making these judgments people consider the subset ofevidence that is skewed by previous expectations- a biased input leads to abiased output
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How did the lawyer/engineer study withdiagnostic & base-rate information demonstrate the people ignore base-rateinformation when they can use the diagnostic information (representativenessheuristic)?
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When asked if specific person is a lawyer- turn thiscategory membership question into a question resemblance. May have wide rangeexposure to lawyers and have accurate base rate. If you have a based categorythen you may not find this individual.
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Dual-Process Models: Type 1 and Type 2thinking (define, areas of brain activation, when do people use one vs the other)
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Type 1: heuristic activation in regions of temporal lobeand is fast and easy, more errors may occur. When under time pressure peopleuse this.Type 2: analytic activation in parietal lobe, is slow andmore effortful but more accurate. If able to focus then more likely to usethis.
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What have skilled professionals likefirefighters taught us about how they know to make quick, intuitive decisionsaccurately (Type 1 thinking)?
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Skilled professionals can make fast effortless andaccurate judgments. When asked they say “they knew” that the flames wouldcollapse the house or that the patient had an infection. Use cues from theenvironment to guide their judgments.
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Making better judgments: Role of chance emphasized
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People are more likely to realize that evidence they areconsidering may be due to random chance. Pay more attention to quality ofevidence and assume that a larger set of data is less vulnerable to chancefluctuations.
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Evidence presented in statistical termsthat are easily understood
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Average person has some understanding of statistical conceptslike sample size.
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Background knowledge
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When tested twice on similar info twice as many studentsconsidered sample size judgments they made. Applying knowledge learned in classto make judgments in a new domain.
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How does the sample size influence ourjudgment about categories that we consider homogenous, vs those we consider tobe varied?
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The larger the sample size the more you can generalize tohomogeneous and varied categories.
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Wason study on confirmation bias – whywere the subjects who sought disconfirming evidence more likely to find thenumber-rule?
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Memory for disconfirming evidence is often rememberedselectively so as to leave the person’s beliefs intact.
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Why does confirmation bias work againstgood deductive reasoning? What role does it play in our belief systems?
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In the gambler example, every win is confirming evidence;losses are thought and remembered as near-wins. We have a tendency to continueendorsing a belief even when evidence has completely undermined it.
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Cost-benefits analysis and utilitymaximization theory in decision-making: Influence of framing (in terms of gainsor losses of lives, in terms of pros/cons of each parent in custody case) ondecision-making - why does this challenge utilitymaximization theory
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From utility maximization model, framing doesn’t makesense as a factor of decision making. Perhaps we don’t weigh utility in orderto make decisions.
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Reason-based choice in decision making– how do framing effects work within this theory?
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Shift in framing changed the factors relevant to thejustification and reversed the pattern of the decision.
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Emotion in decision making:orbitofrontal region and reading somatic markers (high risk, low risk stack incard game), how good are we at affective forecasting?
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When asked how they will feel if something good or badhappens to them we are accurate at estimating valence, but tend to overestimatehow long these feelings will last. People tend to believe that their currentemotional responses to situations are stable and will last.
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Problem solving as a search (Hobbit/Orcproblem): Initial state, goal state, operators, path constraints
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Initial state: knowledge and resourcesGoal state: state you’re working towardsOperators: available tools or actionsPath constraints: limits that rule out some operationsl
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What is a problem space? Why isexploring every possible path in the problem space impractical?
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A problem space is a set of all states that can be reachedin. Exploring every possible path isn’t practical because it is time consuming.
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Strategies to solve problems:Hill-climbing strategy: dog trying to get to abone across a fence
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Strategy doesn’t always work, sometimes you need to moveaway from the problem to get closer to the solution
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Means-end analysis: sub-goals
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Leads to breaking problem down into sub-problems each withits own goal
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Visual imagery: bookworm problem
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By visualizing the problem, becomes clear that bookwormdoesn’t actually need to chew through either volume A or Z
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Using analogies: tumor vs dictatorproblem (deep properties of the problem)
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If you force people to process the underlying principlethey are better able to rely the practice problems later as analogies.
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Expert problem solvers
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More likely to use analogies, use knowledge base to organize the problem into sub-problems (chess master/pieces on board study)
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When are problemsill-defined?
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When is doesn’t have a clear indication of what the goalis.
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What is functional fixedness? How isthis demonstrated in the “tack a candle to the wall” problem?
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Functional fixedness is the tendency to be rigid in thinking about the function of an object. The tack a candle to the wall problem relates to this because if you don’t see the box as a place for the candle to sit in and are just seeing it as holding the tacks then you’ll never see the solution.
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What is a problem solving set or einstellung? How is this demonstrated in the water-jar problem and the 9-dot problem?
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A problem solving is terms used to describe the problem solver’s beliefs, habits, and preferred strategies. The water jar problem gets you used to the pattern ad then changes it and if you aren’t flexible in your thinking then you’ll answer the question wrong. The 9-dot problem is when you have to think outside the box (literally) to solve the problem.
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What four aspects do genius-levelexamples of creativity seem to have in common?
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1. Highly creative people have great knowledge and skills in their domain2. Often share personality traits3. Tend to be motivated by pleasure of their work rather by the promise of external rewards such as money or recognition4. Most of these people have been in the “right place at the right time”
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What the four aspectsof Wallas’s theory of creative thinking? Is this model supported by historicalevidence?
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1. Preparation: gathering info about the problem2. Incubation: sets the problem aside consciously, but works on it unconsciously3. Illumination: key insight or new idea emerges4. Verification: confirms that the new idea really does lead to a solution- works out the detailsThis model is common-sensical, but doesn’t seem to be supported by historical evidence
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Ratings of warmth/insight study – how does the onset of insight relate to the production of a solution to the problem? Is this onset related to the generation of an accurate solution?
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Pattern of warmth is same even when insight leads to an incorrect solution. Problems requiring insight involve distinct set of brain processes.
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How could an incubation phase help with creative problem solving?
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Some studies show that the incubation period provides time for the frustration to go away where you may forget about the earlier non-successful tactics.
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What was Alfred Binet’s conception ofintelligence? How did he use mental and chronological age to evaluateintelligence? How do modern tests like WISC, WAIS, and Raven’s matrices differ?
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Alfred Binet believed that early efforts toward measuring IQ based on idea that intelligence is a capacity that matters for many aspects of cognitive functioning. Mental age/chronological age= IQWISC and WAIS use subtests that measure aspects of cognitive function. Raven’s matrices ask subjects to analyze figures and detect patterns (minimize influence of verbal skills and background knowledge).
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What is reliability? How reliable are intelligence tests?
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Reliability is how consistent is the measure over time (get the same results). Test-retest reliability of intelligence is very high.
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What is validity and predictive validity? How well do IQ scores predict academic performance, job performance, other life outcomes? How do you interpret the fact that these correlations are high but they are not a perfect 1.0.
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Validity is does the test actually measure what its intended to measure. Predictive validity is if IQ tests measure what they’re supposed to then they should predict success in settings that require intelligence. IQ is impressively predictive of a wide range of behaviors, but none of these are perfect. This is because there are outside factors that influence the outcomes.
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What is generalized intelligence? How did Spearman’s factor analysis support this notion of intelligence?
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Generalized intelligence (g) is it a singular ability that can be applied to any context, capacity that provides an advantage on any mental test. Spearman’s data indicates that g is not the whole story because of performance on reading comprehension because of g and verbal skills.
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How is the hierarchical model of intelligence set up? What would you expect, in terms of correlations between tests, based on this model? How does the data support this expectation?
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Combined idea of general and specialized intelligence supports a hierarchical model of intelligence. Hierarchical conception suggests that if we choose tasks from two different categories we should find correlation in performance. Both draw on g: have something in common, choose same category- we should find a higher correlation be these takes have two things in common. Moderately strong correlations all subtests. Stronger correlations among all subtests in the same category.
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