Cognitive Affective Bases Of Behavior

Front 1

Zeigarnik Effect

Back 1

people are more likely to remember uncompleted tasks than completed tasks

Front 2

protocol analysis

Back 2

involves subjects verbalizing their thought process as they perform a task
the goal is to better understand the person's cognitive process, esp. concerning problem solving

Front 3

dismantling theory

Back 3

various components of a treatment are analyzed separately to examine treatment effects

Front 4

operant conditioning

Back 4

reinforcement
AKA Instrumental Conditioning
Skinner
Thorndike

Front 5

classical conditioning

Back 5

pairing
Watson, Pavlov

Stimulus -Response (S-R) paradigm:

-CS/US>UR until conditioning has occurred

-CS>CR occurs when UR takes place as soon as the CS appears and the US is not needed anymore

Front 6

behavioral contrast

Back 6

operant conditioning concept
two behaviors are initially reinforced equally, then one behavior stops being reinforced. That behavior decreases while the one still being reinforced increases

Front 7

operant extinction

Back 7

withholding reinforcement for a previously reinforced behavior

Front 8

punishment

Back 8

Operant conditioning:

to decrease an unacceptable behavior
negative - taking something desirable away
positive - applying something aversive

Front 9

reinforcement

Back 9

designed to increase a behavior
negative - taking away something negative
positive - applying something positive

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Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Back 10

Preconventional Morality
Conventional Morality
Postconventional Morality

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Preconventional Morality

Back 11

Kohlberg's
emphasis on compliance with rules to avoid punishment and get rewards
substage 1 - Punishment-Obedience
substage 2 - Instrumental Hedonism

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Conventional Morality

Back 12

Kohlberg's
focus on conforming to rules to get social approval
substage 1 - Good Boy/Good Girl
substage 2 - Law and Order

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Postconventional Morality

Back 13

Kohlberg's
Morality of Contract
Rights and Law's
Morality of Conscience

Front 14

mediated generalization

Back 14

AKA stimulus generalization
classical conditioning
generalizing from the CS to another neutral stimuli - the new response is not intentionally trained

Front 15

response generalization

Back 15

operant conditioning
the person (or animal) displays responses similar to those that have been reinforced

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avoidance behavior

Back 16

operant conditioning
a person learns that emitting certain behavior can prevent negative consequences from occurring
ex. you pay your bills on time so you don't get a fee

Front 17

high-order conditioning

Back 17

classical conditioning
pairing the CS with another neutral stimulus that is typically unrelated
intentional training
AKA second-order conditioning

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Premack Principle

Back 18

involves using a high frequency behavior to reinforce a low frequency behavior

Front 19

generalized conditioned reinforcers

Back 19

special case of secondary reinforcers that acquire their reinforcing value b/c they can be exchanged for other reinforcers
ex. money and tokens

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chaining

Back 20

thought to underlie the acquisition of complex behaviors (driving a car), in which e/a response serves as both reinforcement for the previous response and as a discriminative stimulus for the next response

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respondent conditioning

Back 21

AKA classical conditioning

Front 22

Describe tasks that require convergent thinking

Back 22

Tasks that require an examinee to derive a single correct answer

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describe tasks that assess divergent thinking

Back 23

Tasks that require the examinee to generate as many ideas as possible

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Implicit memories

Back 24

Memories that are recalled without conscious effort.

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Prospective memory

Back 25

The ability to remember to do something in the future e.g., to buy a gallon of milk the next time you go to the store.

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Metamemory

Back 26

Refers to a person's insight into his/her own memory processes.

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Crystallized intelligence

Back 27

Involves the ability to recall and use information that has been learned

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Fluid intelligence

Back 28

Involves the ability to see new relationships, solve new problems, and form new concepts.

Front 29

Goal-setting theory

Back 29

Difficult goals result in greater productivity than easy or ambiguous goals. With regard to task difficulty, the less complex the task, the stronger the link between goal difficulty and productivity.

Front 30

inoculation

Back 30

The purpose is to reduce a listener's susceptibility to a persuasive message. It involves 3 steps: warning the listener of the impending persuasive message; making a weak attack against the listener's position; and having the listener actively defend his/her position.

Front 31

Damage to the hippocampus will have the greatest impact on __________________.

Back 31

memory consolidation, explicit memory, and spatial memory

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Heuristics

Back 32

Heuristics"mental shortcuts" that simplify problem-solving

Front 33

Internalization

Back 33

when an individual changes his behavior because he privately accepts and believes the attitudes or behaviors of the other person to be correct

Front 34

Retroactive inhibition or interference

Back 34

occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of previously learned information.

Front 35

Causes of mental retardation

Back 35

Problems during the embryonic stage account for 30% of the cases of MR, & include chromosomal changes e.g., Down's Syndrome or damage due to toxins e.g., maternal alcohol use, infections. Perinatal problems account for 10% of cases of MR, & include fetal malnutrition, hypoxia, trauma, & viral infections. The perinatal period is from 1 lb of weight (in utero) to 1 mo. after birth. Heredity accounts for 5% of the cases of MR, & includes genetic abnormalities & chromosomal aberrations.

Front 36

retrograde amnesia

Back 36

loss of memory for events preceding a trauma; e.g., a soldier's forgetting events immediately before a shell burst nearby

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anterograde amnesia

Back 37

loss of memory for events that occur after the onset of the trauma; e.g., seen in a boxer who suffers a blow to the head and loses memory for events after the blow

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James-Lange Theory of Emotion

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Emotion results from perception of bodily sensations from physiological change E.g. we feel sad because we cry, we do not cry because we are sad

-

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Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Back 39

when confronted with an arousing event, people first feel an emotion and then experience physiological reactions such as sweating, muscle tension, or trembling.

-Centers emotional experience on the thalamus

Stimulus-->Cortical Processing-->thalamic Processing-->behaviour

-Processing required in the brain prior to physiological changes

Front 40

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Back 40

Schachter & Singer

emotions are the result of physiological arousal and cognition; emotional experiences are defined by how individuals interpret or appraise their physiological arousal and bodily responses to an event. aka cognitive appraisal

Front 41

Describe Baddeley's (1986) model of working memory.

Back 41

This model of working memory has three distinct subsystems: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and the central executive

Front 42

phonological loop

Back 42

In Alan Baddeley's model of working memory, it is the speech-based part of working memory that allows for the verbal rehearsal of sounds or words,

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visuospatial sketchpad

Back 43

In Alan Baddeley's model of working memory, it is a parallel system akin to an artist's sketchbook for stimuli that cannot be verbalized; is responsible for the manipulation and temporary storage of visual and spatial information.

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central executive

Back 44

In Alan Baddely's model of working memory, it is the component that integrates information from the phonological loop & the visuospatial working memory, as well as material retrieved from long-term memory. It plays a major role in planning & controlling behavior.

Front 45

Thorndike's law of effect

Back 45

a behavior that is followed by a "satisfying consequence" will be likely to occur again.

Paradigm:

CS>CR/US>UR (i.e. a stimulus that precedes a behaviour that leads to a satisfying consequence will tend to be repeated)

Front 46

matching law

Back 46

The principle that the proportion of responses emitted on a particular schedule matches the proportion of reinforcers obtained on that schedule; the relative frequency of responding to an alternative corresponds to the frequency of reinforcement for responding to that alternative.

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law of contiguity

Back 47

learning depends on the proximity of stimuli in space and time.

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equipotentiality law

Back 48

states that intact areas of the brain can assume the functions of areas that have been destroyed

Front 49

proactive inhibition

Back 49

previous learning interferes with more recent learning

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retroactive inhibition

Back 50

New information blocks old information

Front 51

Stroop Effect

Back 51

Name of word interferes with the naming of the color

Front 52

Theory of Unconscious inerference

Back 52

(Hermann Helmholtz)

Perceptions are impacted by unconscious assumptions & can be influenced by past experiences.

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What is the learning curve?

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Savings = [(initial repetitions)-relearning repetitions]/initial repetitions

then multiply by 100 for a %

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Schemas

Back 54

Organized patterns of thought and behavior that influence what we attend to and how we absorb new information.

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Person Schemas

Back 55

Attributes we use to categorize people and make inferences about their behavior. We assess their skills, competencies, and values to make determinations about their personality traits.

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Event Schemas

Back 56

Cognitive processes or practices we use to approach tasks or problems. Provides the basis for anticipating the future, setting goals and making plans.

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Role Schemas

Back 57

How we expect individuals to behave in certain roles. Often associated with stereotypes. Includes behavior sets and role expectations.

Front 58

Self Schemas

Back 58

Cognitive representations about our self-concept, that is, perceptions of our traits, competencies, and values.

Front 59

What is an example of flashbulb memory?

Back 59

Remembering where you were and what you were doing when you first learning about Sept. 11th.

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What is source memory?

Back 60

Remembering the source of where the information was learned.

Front 61

People are most likely to accurately remember a sentence if they are required to use?

Back 61

Their short-term primary memory.

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What is sustained attention?

Back 62

The ability to focus on specific stimuli over an extended period of time. It is used to study for a test.

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What is divided attention?

Back 63

Focuses on multiple events simultaneously, or focuses on one event while ignoring relevant events. It used while driving and listening to music.

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What is eidetic memory?

Back 64

The ability to retain an image of what is seen for a long period of time. It is most common in children.

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Semantic Memory Example

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Knowing there are 12 months in the year

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Episodic Memory example

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Remembering your 21st birthday

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Procedural memory example

Back 67

remember how to ride a bike

Front 68

It is thought that distortion occurs because?

Back 68

Long term memory relies heavily on semantic (meaning) features of hearing/witnessing events (ex: Fido was hit by a truck).

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theory of schematic memory

Back 69

Posits that memory for events is structured according to mental schemas. Memories for events can also be altered and elaborated upon in order to fit the schema (the appearance of a robber is remembered as more menacing than it was actually experienced at the time).

Front 70

Trace conditioning example

Back 70

The CS precedes the US by a period and stops right before the US. Ex: A can opener for a dog produces the same response as it does with meat powder.

Front 71

What is the difference between spontaneous recovery and response burst?

Back 71

Spontaneous recovery involves the CR to the CS often briefly reappears. Response burt involves withholding reinforcement.

Front 72

Stimulus Discrimination

Back 72

An animal learns to discrete between two similar neutral stimuli because one has been paired with the US while one has not. If the stimulus discriminations are made too difficult, the animal will experience experimental neurosis.

Front 73

Pseudo-Conditioning

Back 73

A NS that was not deliberately paired with the US or CS comes to elicit the CR. It may be caused by either inadvertent pairing or heightened arousal.

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What do variable schedules result in?

Back 74

Response rates that are smooth and steady, both and after reinforcement.

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What do fixed schedules result in?

Back 75

Scalloped patterns: increased rate of the target behavior occurs just prior to reinforcement.

Front 76

Behavioural Contrast

Back 76

When one of two behaviors that are being reinforced stops being reinforced, that behavior decreases while the other increases.

Front 77

Satiation

Back 77

When a primary reinforcer loses its reinforcing quality from being presented too much .

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Habituation

Back 78

When a subjects gets used to an US (loud noise) and no longer reacts to to it (startling).

Front 79

Differences between classical and operant conditioning

Back 79

Classical: no choice in responding vs Operant: the animal has a choice (motivation)

CC: No pleasure or avoidance included in US but OC there is

Negative Reinforcement: CC it increases CR; OC decreases likelihood

Faster learning in CC compared to OC b/c of choice to respond or not

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Sensation definition

Back 80

The detection of stimulation.

Front 81

Signal Detection Theory (SDT)

Back 81

two individuals confronted with the same stimulus presentation may come to different conclusions (i.e. they may not agree to whether a simple stimulus was present), which may be due to discriminability or response bias

Front 82

Discriminability of the stimulus

Back 82

=Separation/spread

Separation= signal strength

Spread = background noise present during stimulus presentation

Front 83

Response bias

Back 83

a function of where the criterion for stimulus detection is set. criterion set low: avoid false negatives; criteria set high: avoid false positive

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Perception

Back 84

the detection and interpretation of sensory stimuli

Front 85

Hierarchical processing and example

Back 85

A perceived stimulus will undergo successive elaboration e.g. in visual stimulus you process edge and orientation at early stages, detect features such as corners or curves at middle stages, and identify the object from a memory store at a later stage

Front 86

Functional Segregation

Back 86

There is a separate central nervous system unit for processing each visual feature (e.g. shape, color, motion)

Front 87

Feature Binding

Back 87

sensory/perceptual integration: the cognitive process by which a unified internal representation of a stimulus is formed from the activity of multiple mental modules

-Requires greater attentional resources than single feature processing

-More likely to rely on frontal and parietal cortex

-is supported by cholinergic activity

Front 88

Optimal Estimation Theory (Bayesian Approaches)

Back 88

-Used to understand sensory/perceptual processes

-Also known as Statistical Decision Theory

-->given that there are several possible interpretations of a stimulus, the system selects the most probable interpretation (the actual image data is combined with prior assumptions) e.g. we experience color the same despite the fact that colors do not remain constant in different illuminants

Front 89

Attentional Load Theory

Back 89

Lavie & Tsal

the degree to which an ignored stimulus is processed depends on the extent of processing required by the attended stimulus. reduction of interference caused by distractors is greatest when the processing demands to the attended stimulus are highest

Front 90

What are the the reasons that limitations in attentional resources occur?

Back 90

Structural Interference: The more similar tasks are, the more they compete for limited attentional resources. Similar tasks tend to share the same sensory/perceptual modality

General Resource: there is a general limit to the extent of resources.

Behavioural Coherence: the unity of our actions places limits on attentional resources in preparing responses

Front 91

what are the two mechanisms of attentional control?

Back 91

Bottom-up mechanisms: stimulus-driven; reflexive attention; amygdala and ventral aspects of frontal lobe e.g. reacting to your name spoken across a crowded room

Top-down mechanisms: strategic; lateral parietal and frontal lobes; eg finding a green 0 on a paper of Xs

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Executive Functioning

Back 92

Those capacities that enable a person to engage sucessfully in independent, purposive, self-directive, and self-serving behavior. activated in novel or unfamiliar circumstances

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Intelligence (Wechlsler's definition)

Back 93

the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment

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A.R. Luria's three-level theory of higher cortical functions in man

Back 94

From the bottom-up:

1. regulation of cortical arousal and attention

2. receiving, processing and retention of information

3. programming, regulation and verification of behaviour

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g-theory

Back 95

(Spearman)

-Each mental ability represented by a mental test was influenced by a general factor (g) and a specific factor (s)

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Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

Back 96

(Thurstone)

-mental abilities belong to between seven and nine ability cagegories that are independent of a higher-order g factor

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Gf and Gc

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(Cattell)

-Proposed that g is composed of general fluid (Gf) and general Crystalized (Gc) ability

-Gf: a facility for reasoning and adapting to new situations

-Gc: accessible stores of knowledge

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Three-stratum model

Back 98

(Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory)

-most intelligence tests are based on it

-g is a higher-order factor that influences lower-order factores

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Investment THeory of intelligence development

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a single relation perceiving faculty (Gf) is applied to the development of other abilities such as acquired knowledge (Gc), Memory (Gsm), or sensory and/or motor-related abilites (i.e. Ga)

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Short-Term Memory

Back 100

(Gsm): a range of brief retention abilities of nonmeaningfully related information such as a number or word series

Information can only be retained for a brief time and in limited amounts

-the material we are thinking about at a given moment aka working memory

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Treatment Validity

Back 101

the value of an assessment in selecting and implementing interventions and treatments that will benefit the examinee

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Learning

Back 102

the storage by the nervous system of information for its retrieval at a later time

Front 103

How is Thorndike's law of effect paradigm different from Pavlov/Watson's classical conditioning paradigm?

Back 103

In Operant Conditioning (Thorndike): the CR moves ahead of the US and indicates that the CR may or may not be made, depending on the nature of the consequence (i.e. the US).

In operant conditioning the CRincludes an element of choice: if there are positive consequences you will respond, negative consequences and you won't do it

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Reinforcement Schedule

Back 104

In operant conditioning: what the reinforcement will be and how often it is likely to appear

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Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)

Back 105

OC: the reinforcer follows every instant of the CS

-it is the fastest way to learn but it is not efficient because it requires so many reinforcers

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Fixed Ratio Reinforcement (FR)

Back 106

When the reinforcement does not vary in proportion (e.g. rewarded every 5th press of the lever)

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Variable ratio (VR)

Back 107

OC: rewards are randomly spaced. Produces a high rate of output

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fixed interval schedule

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the first response after a set interval of time is rewarded. reinforcements are never given without some work

-leads to intermittent behaviour

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Variable ratio interval schedule

Back 109

-intervals between reinforcements are of unpredictable length

-a steady response rate is produced but only of medium speed

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Primacy & recency Effects

Back 110

Ebbinghaus

-the first and last syllables are easiest to remember

-Theorized that this occurs because there is no interference between the first and last syllables

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Discovery sensory preconditioning

Back 111

Pavlov:

stimuli associate even in the absence of any overt responses

-A connection can be made between two stimuli (CS1 and CS2) by pairing them, and no response is seen to occur. then CS2, without the preceding CS1 is conditioned by adding a US so that CS2 produces a CR. lastly, the CS1 is presented alone and also produces the CR

Front 112

Stimulus-Stimulus conditioning

Back 112

when we pair two things together: eg. salt and pepper

Front 113

Expectancy Theory

Back 113

(VIctor Vroom)

Foundation in the S-S model: the observation of behaviour is sufficient to form the expectancy of reinforcement. e.g. children will imitate adult behaviour from observing it aka observational learning

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Vicarious Learning

Back 114

When animals watch other animals to find out how they are getting reinforcers and applying the knowledge to themselves

Front 115

Modal Model of Information Processing

Back 115

Waugh & Norman and Atikinson & Shiffrin

Memory includes three levels: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory

Front 116

Sensory memory

Back 116

Retaining visual images and auditory inputs for milliseconds. Sensory memory chops the flow of input into snapshots to compare the input to other data and process it's meaning

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Long-term memory

Back 117

all the info that has been learned, but is not needed at the moment

-permanent

-2 main categories: declarative and nondeclarative

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Declarative memory

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Declarative memory: things one knows (explicit) and can access

-two main divisions: semantic memory (knowledge of the world) & episodic memory (everyday experiences)

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Nondeclarative memory

Back 119

items the person is unaware of knowing (implicit), yet still can demonstrate knowledge of

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ACT Model of Cognition

Back 120

Anderson

Adaptive Control of Thought: procedural learning occurs through a series of If-Then connections. Whenever the outcome is not as expected, additional If-Then clauses are added to accommodate the new situation

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Somatic Marker Hypothesis

Back 121

(SMH)

-Focuses on emotion and its role in decision making: emotional processes can influence behaviour, predominately decision making

-Decision making is influenced by marker signals that arise from multiple levels of operation, both consciously and unconsciously

-Marker signals arise in bioregulatory processes, emotions and feeling

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Basic emotion model of Emotions

Back 122

All emotions can be described by a small group of specific emotions

-6 primary emotions: happy, sad, surprised, disgusted, angry, afraid

-these 6 emotions are hardwired at birth and secondary emotions (other emotions that are labeled other than these): are combos of the same basic six emotions and are influenced by cultural factors

Front 123

Dimensional model of emotions

Back 123

emotions are a combination of several dimensions of physiological and psychological phenomena

-valence (pleasantness of a stimulus) and arousal (automatic arousal in response to a stimulus)

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What does the amygdala do in regards to emotions

Back 124

primary center of fear-related processing (negative emotional experiences)

Front 125

Function of the orbitofrontal cortex and the nucleus accumbens and emotion

Back 125

-orbiofrontal cortex: regulation of emotional behaviour and provides an inhibitory influence on impulsive emotional responses

-Nucleaus accumbens: process of positive reinforcement and is the pleasure center

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Drive theory of motivation

Back 126

Revolves around homeostasis (an organism works to keep a physiological equilibrium). when the equilibrium is upset, the organism has a need and is motivated to engage in behaviour that will reestablish equilibrium

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

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individual is motivated to engage in behaviour to fulfill needs in a certain order and will not be motivated to engage in behaviour that will fulfill a higher-level of need such as family or friends until the lower-level needs are met

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Two-factor theory of motivation

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Instrinsic and extrinsic motivation are responsible for workplace motivation

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Need for Achievement Theory of motivation

Back 129

Atkinson & McClelland

-motivation is governed by Achievement, authority and affiliation

-Achievement is the need to find asense of accomplishment through advancement and feedback.

-Authority is theneed to lead and to make an impact.

- Affiliation is the need to be liked and todevelop positive social interactions.

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Self-determination Theory of Motivation

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humans have inherent growth tendencies that lead to consistent effort

-Competence is theneed to develop mastery.

-Relatedness is the need to develop relationships withothers.

-Autonomy is the need to have control in one’s own life while maintainingrelationships with others.

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Back 131

when people behave in a manner that is inconsistent with their values/beliefs they will change their beliefs to manage the psychological tension created by the mismatch. This urge to cope with dissonance generates motivation: to either change beliefs or change one's behaviour

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Learned helplessness

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animals exposed to inescapable pain will eventually stop trying to avoid the pain, weven when opportunities to escape were presented

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Equity Theory

Back 133

individuals assess the rewards from their work. If theyfeel under-rewarded or over-rewarded, they experience emotional distress andattempt to rectify these feelings through changing either their evaluations of orcontributions to their work.

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Goal-setting theory

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Locke

incorporated the fact that humans can plan for and formexpectations about the future and that these expectations can assist individuals inreaching peak performance.

goals affect behavior in four ways:

1. by directing attention

2. by mobilizing efforts and resources for the task

3. by encouraging persistence

4. by facilitating the development of strategies to complete the goal

the individual must have a commitment to thegoal in order to maintain motivation.

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Yerkes-Dodson Law

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there is an optimal level of anxiety that will lead to peak performance

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Conscious Processing Hypothesis (CPH)

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increased anxiety associated withperformance under pressure leads the individual to exert conscious control overa skill or activity that otherwise can be completed with automatic processing

This conscious focus on the skill disrupts the normally smoothautomatic processing and leads to decrements in performance

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Processing Efficiency Theory (PET)

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PET predicts that increased stresswill reduce the capacity of WM, thereby increasing the difficulty of completingthe task for the individual

concomitant with decreases in WM, there is an increase in the attention thatis directed to the task.

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Conservation of Resources

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-CORpostulates that the impact of stress and emotions on performance can be understoodas a function of individual and group resources

-an individual is primarily motivated to build and maintainresources that will protect both the individual and the social system that supportsthe individual. Resources provide both the means to deal with stress and anxietyand the framework for an individual’s appraisal of an event and ability to copewith the event

-Individuals who already have reduced resourceswill be more vulnerable than those who have abundant resources; these vulnerableindividuals will show reduced performance in the face of stress due to theirdepleted resources.

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Cognitive Interference Theory

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negative self-talk unrelatedto the task interferes with the individual’s ability to perform adequately bydrawing cognitive resources, such as attention, away from the task.