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153 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Articulatory rehearsal process
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rehearsal process involved in working memory that keeps items in the phonological store from decaying
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Articulatory suppression
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interference with operation of the phonological loop that occurs when a person repeats an irrelevant word such as "the" while carrying out a task that requires the phonological loop
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Auditory coding
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representation of the sound of a stimulus in the mind
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Central executive
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the part of working memory that coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad
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Chunk
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a collection of elements that are strongly associated with each other, but are weakly associated with elements in other these
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Coding
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the form in which stimuli are represented in the mind
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Control processes
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in Atkinson and Shriffrin's modal model of memory, active processes tat can be controlled by the person and may differ from one task to another
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Decay
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process by which information is lost from memory due to the passage of time
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Delayed partial report method
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procedure used in Sperling's experiment on the properties of the visual icon, in which participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display; the cue tone that was delayed for a fraction of a second after the display was extinguished indicated which part of the display to report
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Delayed response task
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a task in which information is provided, a delay is imposed, and then memory is tested
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Digit span
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the number of digits a person can remember; used as a measure of the capacity of short term memory
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Echoic memory
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brief sensory memory for auditory stimuli that lasts for a few seconds after a stimulus is extinguished
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Encoding
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the process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory
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Episodic buffer
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a component added to Baddeley's original working memory model that serves as a backup store that communicated with both LTM and the components of working memory; it holds information longer and has greater capacity than the phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad
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Iconic memory
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brief sensory memory for visual stimuli that lasts for a fraction of a second after a stimulus is extinguished; this corresponds to the sensory memory stage of the modal model of memory
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Memory
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the processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills, after the original information is no longer present
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Mental approach to coding
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determining how a stimulus or experience is represented in the mind
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Modal model of memory
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the model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that described memory as a mechanism that involves processing information through a series of stages, including short term memory and long term memory
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Partial report method
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procedure used in Sperling's experiment on the properties of the visual icon, in which participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display; a cue tone immediately after the display was extinguished indicated which part of the display to report
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Perseveration
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difficulty in switching from one behavior to another, which can hinder a person's ability to solve problems that require flexible thinking
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Persistence of vision
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the continued perception of light for a fraction of a second after the original light stimulus has been extinguished
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Phonological loop
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the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
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Phonological similarity effect
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an effect that occurs when letters of words that sound similar are confused
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Physiological approach to coding
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studying the mind by measuring physiological and behavioral responses, and explaining behavior in physiological terms
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Proactive inference
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when information learned previously interferes with learning new information
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Reading span
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the max number of sentences that a person can read while simultaneously holding the last word of each sentence in memory; used to measure both the storage and processing functions of working memory
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Recall test
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a test in which participants are presented with stimuli and then, after a delay, are asked to remember as many of the stimuli as possible
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Rehearsal
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the process of repeating a stimulus over and over usually for the purpose of remembering it, that keeps the stimulus active in short term memory
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Release from proactive interference
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a situation in which conditions occur that eliminate or reduce the decrease in performance caused by proactive interference
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Retrieval
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the process of remembering information that has been stored in long term memory
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Semantic coding
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coding in the mind in the form of meaning
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Sensory memory
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a brief stage of memory that holds information for seconds or fractions of a second; it is the first stage in the modal model of memory
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Short term memory (STM)
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a memory mechanism that can hold a limited amount of information for a brief period of time, usually around 30 seconds, unless there is rehearsal that can maintain information in short term memory
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Structural features (modal model)
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stages in the modal model of memory
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Visual coding
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coding in the mind in the form of a visual image
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Visual imagery
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a type of mental imagery involving vision, in which an image is experienced in the absence of a visual stimulus
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Visuospatial sketch pad
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the part of working memory that holds and processes visual and spatial information
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Whole report method
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procedure used in Sperling's experiment on the properties of the visual icon, in which participants were instructed to report all of the stimuli they saw in a brief presentation
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Word length effect
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the notion that s more difficult to remember a list of long words than a list of short words
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working memory
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a limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning
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Anterograde amnesia
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amnesia for events that occur after an injury - that is, the inability to form new memories
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Classical conditioning
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a procedure in which pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response causes the neutral stimulus to elicit that response
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Conceptual priming
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priming that occurs when the enhancement caused by a priming stimulus is based on the meaning of the stimulus
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Declarative memory
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memory that involves conscious recollections of previously experienced events (episodic) or facts (semantic)
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Episodic memory
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memory for specific events that have happened to the person having the memory; these events are usually remembered as a persona experience that occurred at a particular time and place
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Explicit memory
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memory that involves conscious recollections of events or facts that we have learned in the past
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Implicit memory
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memory that occurs when an experience affects a person's behavior, even though the person is not aware that he has had the experience
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Korsakoff's syndrome
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a condition caused by prolonged vitamin B1 deficiency that leads to destruction of areas on the frontal and temporal loves and causes severe impairments in memory
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Long-term memory (LTM)
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a memory mechanism that can hold large amounts of information for long periods of time
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Mental time travel
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according to Tulving, the defining property of the experience of episodic memory, in which a person travels back in time in his mind to re-experience events that happened in the past
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Nondeclarative memory
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memory that occurs when an experience affects a person's behavior, even though the person is not aware that he has had the experience (same as implicit memory)
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Primacy effect
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in a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the beginning of the list
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Priming
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a change in response to a stimulus caused by the previous presentation of the same or a similar stimulus
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Procedural memory
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memory for how to carry out highly practiced skills; is a type of implicit memory because although people can carry out a skilled behavior, they often cannot explain exactly how they are able to do so
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propaganda effect
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people are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, just because of prior exposure to statements
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Recency effect
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in a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the end of the list
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Recognition memory
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identifying a stimulus that was encountered earlier; stimuli are presented during a study period and then new stimuli and the same stimuli are presented and the participant is tasked with picking the stimuli that was originally presented
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Repetition priming
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when an initial presentation of a stimulus affects the person's response to the same stimulus when it is presented later
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Retrograde amnesia
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loss of memory for something that happened prior to an injury or traumatic event
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Semantic memory
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memory for knowledge about the world that is not tied to any specific personal experience
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Serial position curve
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in a memory experiment in which participants are asked to recall a list of words, a plot for the percentage of participants remembering each word against the position of that word in the list
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Consolidation
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the process that transforms new memories into a state in which they are more resistant to disruption
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Cued recall
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a procedure for testing memory in which a participant is presented with cues, such as words or phrases, to aid recall of previously experienced stimuli
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Deep processing
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processing that involves attention to meaning and relating an item to something else
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Depth of processing
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the idea that the processing that occurs as an item is being encoded into memory can be deep or shallow
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Elaborative rehearsal
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rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge
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Encoding
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the process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory
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Encoding specificity
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the principle that we learn information together with its context; this means that presence of the context can lead to enhanced memory for the information
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Free recall
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a procedure for testing memory in which the participant is asked to remember stimuli that were previously presented
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Generation effect
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memory for material is better when a person generates the material him or herself, rather than passively receiving it
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Graded amnesia
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when amnesia is most severe for events that occurred just prior to an injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events
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Levels of processing (LOP)
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part of this theory that states that there are different depths of processing that can be achieved as information is being encoded
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Levels of processing theory
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the idea that memory depends on how information is encoded, with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow
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Long term potentiation (LTP)
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the increased firing that occurs in a neuron due to prior activity at the synapse
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Maintenance rehearsal
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rehearsal that involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information
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Medial temporal lobe (MTL)
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an area in the temporal lobe that consists of the hippocampus and a number of surrounding structures; damage to this causes problems in forming new long term memories
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Multiple trace hypothesis
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the idea, associated with memory consolidation, that the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories
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Paired associate learning
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a learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, then one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word
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Reactivation
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a process that occurs during memory consolidation, in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory
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Reconsolidation
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a process proposed by Nader and others that occurs when a memory is reactivated
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Rehearsal
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the process of repeating a stimulus over and over, usually for the purpose of remembering it, that keeps the stimulus active in a short term memory
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Remote memory
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memory for events that occurred long ago
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Retrieval
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the process of remembering information that has been stored in long-term memory
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Retrieval cues
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cues that help a person remember information that is stored in memory
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Self reference effect
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memory for a word is improved by relating the word to the self
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Shallow processing
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processing that involves repetition with little attention to meaning
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Spacing effect
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the advantage in performance caused by short study session separated by breaks from studying
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Standard model of consolidation
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proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, but that once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus
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State dependent learning
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the principle that memory is best when a person is in the same state for encoding and retrieval
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Synaptic consolidation
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a process of consolidation that involves structural changes at synapses that happen rapidly, over a period of minutes
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Systems consolidation
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a consolidations process that involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a long time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years
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Testing effect
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enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered
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Transfer appropriate processing
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when the type of task that occurs during encoding matches the type of task that occurs during retrieval
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Amygdala
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a subcortical structure that is involved in processing emotional aspects of experience, including memory for emotional events
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Autobiographical memory
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memory for dated events in a person's life
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Cognitive hypothesis
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an explanation for the reminiscence bump, which states that memories are better for adolescence and early adulthood because encoding is better during periods of rapid change that are followed by stability
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Cognitive interview
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a procedure used for interviewing crime scene witnesses that involves letting witnesses talk with a minimum of interruption and also uses techniques that help witnesses recreate the situation present at the crime scene by having them place themselves back in the scene and recreate things like emotions they were feeling, where they were looking and how the scene may have appeared when viewed from different perspectives
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Constructive nature of memory
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the idea that what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as expectations, other knowledge, and other life experiences
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Crytomnesia
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unconscious plagiarism of the work of others; this has been associated with errors in source monitoring
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Cultural life script
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life events that commonly occur in a particular culture
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Cultural life script hypothesis
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the idea that events in a person's life story become easier to recall when they fit the cultural life script for that person's culture
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Eyewitness testimony
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testimony by witnesses to a crime about what they saw during commission of the crime
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Flashbulb memory
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memory for the circumstances surrounding hearing about shocking, highly charged events
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Memory trace replacement hypothesis
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the idea that misleading post event information impairs or replaces memories that were formed during the original experiencing an event
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Misinformation effect
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misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event change how the person describes that event later
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Misleading postevent information (MPI)
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the misleading information that causes the misinformation effect
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Narrative rehearsal hypothesis
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the idea that we remember some life events better because we rehearse them; proposed by Neisser
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Post identification feedback effect
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an increase in confidence of memory recall due to confirming feedback after making an identification
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Pragmatic inference
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a way of thinking about cause and effect in the world that is learned as part of experiencing everyday life
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Reminiscence bump
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the empirical finding that people over 40 years olf have enhanced memory for events from adolescence and early adulthood, compared to other periods of their lives
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Repeated recall
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recall that is tested immediately after an event and then retested at various times after the event
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Repeated reproduction
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a method of measuring memory in which a person reproduces a stimulus on repeated occasion so his memory is tested at longer intervals after the original presentation of the material to be remembered
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Retroactive interference
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when more recent learning interferes with memory for something that happened in the past
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Reverse testing effect
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taking a recall test right after witnessing an event increases a participant's sensitivity to subsequently presented misinformation
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Schema
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a person's knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience
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Script
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a type of schema; the conception of the sequence of actions that describe a particular activity
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Self image hypothesis
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the idea that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's self image or life identity is being formed
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Source misattribution
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occurs when the source of a memory is misidentified
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Source monitoring
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the process by which people determine the origins of memories, knowledge, or beliefs
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Source monitoring error
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misidentifying the source of a memory
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Weapons focus
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the tendency for eyewitnesses to a crime to focus attention on a weapon which causes poorer memory for other things that are happening
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Back propagation
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a process by which learning can occur in a connectionist network, in which an error signal is transmitted backward through the network; this error signal provides the information needed to adjust the weights in the network to achieve the correct output signal for a stimulus
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Basic level
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in Rosch's categorization scheme, the level below the global (superordinate)
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Categorization
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the process by which objects are placed in categories
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Category
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groups of objects that belong together because they belong to the same class of objects
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Category specific knowledge impairment
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a result of brain damage in which the patient has trouble recognizing objects in a specific category
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Cognitive economy
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a feature of some semantic network models in which properties of a category that are shared by many members of a category are stored at a higher level node in the network
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Concept
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a mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions, reasoning, and using and understanding language
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connectionist network
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based on neural networks but are not identical to them; this approach to describing the mental representation of concepts is also called the parallel distributed processing
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Definitional approach to categorization
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the idea that we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether the object meets the definition of the category
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Error signal
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during learning in a connectionist network, the difference between the output signal generated by a particular stimulus and the output that actually represents that stimulus
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Exemplar
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in categorization, members of a category that a person has experienced in the past
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Exemplar approach to categorization
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the approach to categorization in which members of a category are judged against examples of members of the category that the person has encountered in the past
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Family resemblance
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in considering the process of categorization, the idea that things in a particular category resemble each other in a number of ways
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Global (superordinate) level
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the highest level in Rosch's categorization scheme
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Graceful degradation
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disruption of performance due to damage to a system that occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged
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Hidden units
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units in a connectionist network that are located between input units and output units
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Hierarchical model
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as applied to network models of knowledge representation, a model that consists of levels arranged so that more specific concepts are at the bottom and more general concepts are at higher levels
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Hierarchical organization
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organization of categories in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories
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High prototypicality
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a category member that closely resembles the category prototype
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Input units
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units in a connectionist network that are activated by stimulation from the environment
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Lexical decision task
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a procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or a nonword
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Low prototypicality
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a category member that does not closely resemble the category prototype
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Output units
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units in a connectionist network that contain the final output of the network
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Prototype
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a standard used in categorization that is formed by averaging the category members a person has encountered in the past
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Prototype approach to categorization
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the idea that we decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether it is similar to the standard representation of the category
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Prototypicality
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the degree to which a particular member of a category matches the prototype for that category
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Semantic network approach
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the approach to understanding how concepts are organized in the mind that proposes that concepts are arranged in networks
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Sentence verification technique
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a technique in which the participant is asked to indicate whether a particular sentence is true or false
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Specific (subordinate) level
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the level in Rosch's categorization scheme that is a level below the basic level
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Spreading activation
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activity that spreads out along any link in a semantic network that is connected to an activated node
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Typicality effect
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the ability to judge the truth or falsity or sentences involving high prototypical members of a category more rapidly than sentences involving low prototypical members of a category
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Units
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neuron-like processing units in a connectionist network
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