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276 Cards in this Set

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What is the enthalpy of formation?
The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements, all reactants and products in their standard states under standard conditions
Define the enthalpy of atomisation
Then enthalpy change which accompanies the formation of one mole of gaseous atoms from the element in its standard states under standard conditions
What is the First ionisation energy?
First ionisation energy is the standard enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous atoms is converted into a mole of gaseous ions, each with a single positive charge
What is the first electron affinity?
The first electron affinity is the standard enthalpy change when a mole of gaseous atoms is converted into one mole of gaseous ions, each with a single negative charge
What is The second electron affinity?
The second electron affinity is the enthalpy change when one mole of Electrons is added to one mole of gaseous ions, each with a single negative charge to form ions each with two negative charges
What is the lattice formation enthalpy?
The lattice formation enthalpy is the standard enthalpy change when one mole of a solid ionic compound is formed from its gaseous ions.
What is the enthalpy of hydration?
The enthalpy of hydration is the standard enthalpy change when water molecules surround one mole of gaseous ions.
What is the enthalpy of solution?
The enthalpy of solution is the standard enthalpy change when one mole of solute dissolves completely in sufficient solvent to form a solution in which the molecules or ions are far enough apart to not interact with each other.
What is the mean bond enthalpy?
Mean bond enthalpy is the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous molecules each breaks a covalent bond to form two free radicals, averaged over a range of compounds
What is an exothermic reaction
A reaction that gives out heat energy. It has a negative delta H
What is an endothermic reaction?
A reaction that takes in heat energy. It has a positive delta H
What are standard conditions?
Pressure of 100kPa and a temperature of 298K
When bonds break is it an exothermic or endothermic process?
Endothermic
The second law of thermodynamics says that entropy is always________
Increasing
The symbol for change in entropy is....
Delta S
For a reaction to be feasible it has to......
Have a positive entropy change
What is the equation for gibb's free energy?
Delta G = delta H – temperature × system entropy change
For a reaction to be feasible at any temperature it has to be.....
Exothermic with a positive entropy change
The temperature in which a reaction is feasible is the.... (Aka delta T =?)
Enthalpy change divided by the entropy change of a system
When the lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound was calculated, the value was somewhat different than the theoretical value. Why would this be?
Because ionic bonds in reality are not purely ionic
What period 3 elements react with cold water?
Sodium, magnesium and chlorine
What is the equation of the reaction of sodium with water? Include state symbols
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)——> 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g)
What is the pH of the solution formed from sodium and water?
13–14
What is the reaction of magnesium with water? Include state symbols
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) ——> Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
What is the pH of a solution formed from magnesium and cold water?
~10
Write the reaction of magnesium and steam
Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) ——> MgO(s) +H2(g)
What type of reaction is the reaction between magnesium and water/steam?
Redox
Why is sodium more reactive than magnesium?
Because it takes less energy for sodium to lose one electron than it does for magnesium to lose two
Electron loss
Write the reaction of sodium with oxygen. Include state symbols
2Na(s) + 1/2 O2(g)——> Na2O(s)
Write the reaction of magnesium with oxygen. Include state symbols
2Mg(s) + O2(g)——> 2MgO(s)
What colour does sodium burn with
A yellow flame
How can you distinguish between sodium and aluminium?
Sodium will burn with a yellow flame and aluminium windows burn with a white flame
Write the reaction of aluminium with oxygen. Include state symbols.
4Al(s) +3O2(g)——>2Al2O3(s)
Why does aluminium appear to be unreactive?
Because it is always coated in a layer of aluminium oxide
Write the reaction of silicone and oxygen. Include state symbols
Si(s) + O2(g)——>SiO2(s)
Write the reaction of phosphorus and oxygen. Include state symbols
4P(s) + 5O2(g) ——>P4O10(s)
Write the reaction of sulphur and oxygen including state symbols
S(s) + O2(g) ——> SO2(g)
Why do metal oxides have high melting points?
Because they form ionic lattices
What colour does sulphur burn?
Blue
What does Amphoteric mean?
That the species can act as both an acid and a base
When you react phosphorus pentoxide with 6 water molecules you get what?
4 phosphoric acid, H3PO4 molecules
Sulphur dioxide reacts with water to give what
H2SO3. A weak acid.
Not sulphuric acid, but similar
Sulphur trioxide reacts with water to give what?
Sulphuric acid
What is the trend with period 3 oxides bonding and acidity?
The more ionic the solution, the more alkaline. The more covalent, the more acidic.
Apart from your mum, what is slag?
The chemical impurities that have been removed
Sodium oxide reacts with sulphuric acid to give what?
Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 and water
Write the chemical equation for magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid. Include all state symbols
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ——> MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Silicon dioxide will react as a______ acid with_______ bases
Weak, strong
What colour, if any, is sodium silicate?
Colourless
Write the equation for the reaction between silicon dioxide and sodium hydroxide
SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq)——>Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)
When you react phosphorus pentoxide with aqueous sodium hydroxide, you are really reacting____________ with sodium hydroxide
Phosphoric acid
Write the 3 stages of reaction for phosphorus pentoxide with aqueous sodium hydroxide. Remember the reagents are not what you would think they are.
"H3PO4 + NaOH ——> NaH2PO4 +H2O
NaH2PO4 + NaOH ——> NaHPO4 +H2O

NaHPO4 + NaOH ——> NaPO4 +H2O

The reagent is phosphoric acid because phosphorus pentoxide will react instantly with water to give phosphoric acid."

Write the 2 stages of the sulfur dioxide and sodium hydroxide reaction . Include state symbols
"SO2(g) + NaOH(aq) ——> NaHSO3(aq)
NaHSO3(aq) +NaOH (aq) ——>NaSO3(aq) + H2O(l)"

When we connect two electrodes together, the more positive one is being_______Ed and the more negative one is being________Ed
Oxidised, reduced
What is the primary standard electrode?
The hydrogen electrode
In day to day experiments, we don't use the standard electrode. Why is this?
Because it is very difficult to maintain and set up
What is a secondary standard electrode?
An electrode that has had its potential adjusted to the primary standard electrode
Why would we use a secondary electrode?
Because the hydrogen electrode is quite hard to set up
Give an example of a non–rechargable cell
Zinc/copper cell, the Daniel cell
Why is zinc not a transition metal?
Because zinc does not form ions with an incomplete d orbitals
Why is scandium not a transition metal?
It forms ions with an empty d orbitals
What is the short–handed electronic configuration for chromium?
[Ar] 3d5 4s1
What is the short–handed electronic configuration for copper
[Ar] 4s1 3d10
Which transition elements are conducive?
All of them
What colour is the copper 2+(aq) ion?
Blue
What is the coordination number of a transition element?
The number of coordinate bonds it forms
What is a ligand?
An ion or molecule with a lone pair of Electrons that forms a coordinate bond with a transition metal
What shape is an ion with a coordination number 6?
Octahedral
What shape is an ion with coordinate number 4?
Tetrahedral
What is a multidentate ligand?
A ligand that forms more than one coordinate bond
What is a chelate?
A complex ion with one or more polydentate ligands attached
What is a bidentate ligand?
A ligand that can form 2 coordinate bonds with a transition metal
How many coordinate bonds does edta form?
Up to 6 bonds
What is a use for chelates, like edta
Chelates are used to make metal ions precipitate out. This is used as an antidote for transition metal poisoning. The metal precipitates out and you piss it out.
What shape is a complex ion with coordination number 2?
Linear
Give an example of a linear complex ion
Silver something
Write the half equation for the reduction of tollens reagent.
[Ag(NH3)2]+ e– ——> Ag +2NH3
Why are transition metals coloured?
Transition metals have part filled d orbitals. This allows their Electrons to move from one d orbital to another. Because each d orbital has a slightly different energy in a compound, the Electrons absorb light in the visible spectrum to move to higher energy orbitals. Because they only absorb certain wavelengths, the wavelengths that they do not absorb we see as the colour of the transition metal.
When you connect two electrodes together, do the electrons go from the more positive to negative, or vice–versa?
Goes from more negative to positive
When do you use a platinum electrode, apart from the standard electrode?
When going from an ion to another ion.
Electrodes are always in equilibrium. This means they are affected by ____, _____ and _______
Temperature, pressure and concentration
What concentration is an electrode solution, when measuring electrode potentials?
1moldm–³
The standard electrode potential of a half cell is...
The voltage measured under standard conditions when the half cell is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode
The more reactive a metal is the more ______ its electro potential is
Negative
The more reactive a non–metal is, the more _____ its electro potential
Positive
What are the advantages of non rechargeable cells?
They are cheaper, Longer lifetime
What are the disadvantages of non rechargeable batteries?
Can't deliver the power of a rechargeable

toxic


waste product
what is the common oxidation state(s) for scandium?
3+
what is the common oxidation state(s) for titanium
4+
what is the common oxidation state(s) for vanadium
4+ and 5+
What are the 3 common oxidation states for chromium?
2+, 3+, 6+
What is the common oxidation state(s) for manganese?
2+, 4+ and 7+
Give the variable oxidation states of Fe
2+,3+
What is the oxidation state(s) cobalt can be in?
2+,3+
What is nickels common oxidation state(s)
2+
Copper can exist in what oxidation state(s)
1+, 2+
Zinc exists in what oxidation state(s)
2+
What happens when a charged complex ion is oxidised or reduced to a neutral complex?
It precipitates out
A positive complex ion tends to be acid or alkaline?
Acid
What is the colour of Cr (II)
Blue
What colour is Cr(III)
Green
What colour is Cr(VI)?
Yellowish orange
What is useful about chromium in the VI oxidation state?
It can used as an oxidising agent in organic chemistry (acidified potassium dichromate)
What is the equilibrium equation for the dichromate ion?
2CrO4²– (aq) + 2H+ (aq) <––––> Cr2O7²–(aq) + H2O(l)
In a perfect world, catalysts should last forever, why doesn't it?
Because there is some **** in solutions and stuff which make it impure, and these react with the catalysts and poison them
Write the haber process equilibrium reaction, along with what catalyst it uses
N2(g) + 3H2(g) <–––––> 2NH3(g)

Fe catalyst
What is the contact process?
The process used to produce sulfur trioxide, used to make sulfuric acid
Name the catalyst for the contact process(a step in sulfuric acid manufacture) and state the chemical formula
Vanadium oxide, V2O5
What is synthesis gas?
A mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
What do we use synthesis gas (CO + 2H2) for?
The production of methanol
What is autocatalysis?
The process in which a reaction is catalysed by its own products. Aka it speeds up as it goes
What is the lewis definition of an acid?
An electron pair acceptor. (You can remember the lewis stuff as the opposite of the bronsted Lowry **** as they say an acid is a proton DONOR)
What are aqua ions?
Ions dissolved in water or transition metals with water ligands. E.g. [Fe(H2O)6]³+
Which is the stronger acid? Fe3+ or Fe2+? Think about charge densities.
Fe3+
How can you tell the difference between a 2+ and 3+ transition metal ion?
Add carbonate. The 3+ ion makes CO2 bubbles and the 2+ doesnt
Write the equation for aluminium hydroxide and HCl
Al(H2O)3(OH)3 + 3HCl –––––––––> [Al(H2O)6]3+ + 3Cl–
Al(H2O)3(OH)3 + OH– gives what?
[Al(OH)4]– and 3 waters
Why do aqueous transition metals even react?
Because water is a **** ligand so basically everything forces it out the complex
What is the colour of aqueous iron 2+?
Pale green
Name the colour of cobalt 2+ aqueous
Pink
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ is what colour?
Pale blue
What colour is Fe³+(aq)
Purple/yellow/brown
What colour is aqueous aluminium?
Colourless
What is the colour of chromium 3+?
Green
Fe2+(AQ) reacts with a little OH– to give what? State the colour
Green gelatineous precipitate, Fe(OH)2(H2O)4
Fe2+ and excess hydroxide gives what? State the colour as well.
Green gelatineous precipitate of Fe(H2O)4(OH)2
Aqueous iron (II) and a little ammonia gives what? Give the colour
Green gelatineous precipitate, Fe(OH)2(H2O)4
What does an excess of ammonia and aqueous iron 2+ give? Give the colour
Green gelatineous precipitate, Fe(OH)2(H2O)4
When you react iron 2+ with a carbonate what do you get? And the colour.
FeCO3 ppt. Green.
What do you get when reacting Co2+ with OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Blue ppt. Of Co(H2O)4(OH)2
What do you get when reacting Co2+ with excess OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Blue ppt. Of Co(H2O)4(OH)2
What do you get when reacting Co2+ with NH3? Give the colour of the product.
Blue ppt. Of Co(H2O)4(OH)2
What do you get when reacting Co2+ with excess NH3? Give the colour of the product.
Pale yellow–brown solution of [Co(NH3)6]2+
What do you get when reacting Co2+ with carbonate? Give the colour of the product.
Pink precipitate of CoCO3
What do you get when reacting Copper 2+ with OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Pale blue precipitate of Cu(H2O)4(OH)2
What do you get when reacting Copper 2+ with excess OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Pale blue precipitate of Cu(H2O)4(OH)2
What do you get when reacting Copper 2+ with NH3? Give the colour of the product.
Pale blue precipitate of Cu(H2O)4(OH)2
What do you get when reacting Copper 2+ with excess NH3? Give the colour of the product.
Deep blue [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+
What do you get when reacting Copper 2+ with carbonate? Give the colour of the product.
Blue/green precipitate of CuCO3
What do you get when reacting iron 3+ with OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Brown gelatineous precipitate of Fe(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting iron 3+ with excess OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Brown gelatineous precipitate of Fe(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting iron 3+ with NH3? Give the colour of the product.
Brown gelatineous precipitate of Fe(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting iron 3+ with excess NH3? Give the colour of the product.
Brown gelatineous precipitate of Fe(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting aluminium 3+ with OH–? Give the colour of the product.
White precipitate of Al(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting aluminium 3+ with excess OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Colourless solution of [Al(OH)4]–
What do you get when reacting aluminium 3+ with NH3? Give the colour of the product.
White precipitate of Al(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting aluminium 3+ with excess NH3? Give the colour of the product.
White precipitate of Al(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting aluminium 3+ with carbonate? Give the colour of the product.
White precipitate of Al(H2O)3(OH)3 and bubbles
What do you get when reacting iron 3+ with carbonate? Give the colour of the product.
Brown gelatineous precipitate of Fe (H2O)3(OH)3 and Bubbles
What do you get when reacting chromium 3+ with OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Green precipitate of Cr(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting chromium 3+ with excess OH–? Give the colour of the product.
Green solution of [Cr(OH)6]3–
What do you get when reacting chromium 3+ with NH3? Give the colour of the product.
Green precipitate of Cr(H2O)3(OH)3
What do you get when reacting chromium 3+ with excess NH3? Give the colour of the product.
Purple solution of [Cr(NH3)6]3+
What do you get when reacting chromium 3+ with carbonate? Give the colour of the product.
Green precipitate of Cr(OH)3 and CO2 bubbles
When do we use the lewis definition for acids?
Transition metal chemistry
When do we use the bronsted Lowry definition?
When hydrogen's get involved
What is lattice dissociation enthalpy?
When one mole of an ionic compound is converted to gaseous ions
What is the rate of a reaction?
The change in concentration per unit time (moldm–3/s)
What is the rate constant?
A coefficient equating the rate of a reaction with the rate expression
Can we tell whether the rate expression is complete? If so, what is the process?
We can't tell aether the rate expression is complete, because there could be other reactants that are constant that we don't know about.
How do we find the rate expression?
Only by experiment, and changing the concentration of reactants one at a time while measuring the reaction rate.
What is the order of reaction?
The power to which a reagent is raised to in the rate equation.
What is the overall order of reaction?
The combined power to which all reagents in the rate expression are raised to.
If an equilibrium reaction is endothermic going forward, what happens to the rate if we increase the temperature?
The rate will increase. The rate always increases with temperature, due to more particles having the required energy to react
If an equilibrium reaction is exothermic going forward, what happens to the rate if we increase the temperature?
The rate will increase. The rate always increases with temperature, due to more particles having the required energy to react
If an equilibrium reaction is exothermic going forward, what happens to the rate if we decrease the temperature?
Decrease. The rate always decreases with a decrease in temperature, due to fewer particles having the required energy to react.
If an equilibrium reaction is endothermic going forward, what happens to the rate if we decrease the temperature?
Decrease. The rate always decreases with a decrease in temperature, due to fewer particles having the required energy to react.
How do we increase the rate constant k?
By increasing the temperature.
What happens to the rate of a liquid reaction if we increase the pressure?
Nothing. Changes in pressure only affect the rate of a gas reaction.
What happens to the rate of a solid reaction if we increase the pressure?
Nothing. Changes in pressure only affect the rate of a gas reaction.
What happens to the rate of a gaseous reaction if the pressure is increased? Why?
The rate will increase, due to the amount of collisions per second increasing. This is because the same number of particles are now in a smaller space.
What is the general equation for Kc
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Does pressure affect the equilibrium constant? Why?
No, because when pressure is increased, the forward and backward reaction rates are increased.
Does changing the temperature change the equilibrium constant? Why?
Yes, because either the forward or backwards reaction will favour the temperature change (endothermic favors an increase, exothermic favors decrease). If the forward reaction is favored, then Kc will increase, and vice versa
What is a bronsted –Lowry acid?
A proton donor
What is a bronsted – Lowry base?
A proton acceptor
"Ammonia and water react in an equilibrium reaction. What is:

1) The base


2) The acid


3) The conjugate base


4) The conjugate acid

What is a strong acid?
An acid that fully dissociates in water
What is a weak acid?
An acid that partially dissociates in water
What is a strong base?
A base that will fully dissociate in water
What is a weak base?
A base that will partially dissociate in water
What is Kw? Give the expression for Kw.
Kw is the water dissiociation constant, 1×10^–14

Kw=[H+][OH–]
In the water dissociation constant expression, Kw there is not a term for water. Why is this?
Because the concentration of water is always constant.
What is the auto ionization of water?
H2O automatically forming an H+ ion and an OH– ion.
Provide Ka expression for ethanoic acid.
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What is the definition, and equation for pH?
PH is a measure of how acidic a solution is, with acidity increasing as pH decreases.
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Give an equation, and definition for pKa.
pKa is a measure of how strong an acid is. The lower pKa is, the stronger the acid is.
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When calculation the pH of a weak acid, what do we assume?
We assume that the dissociation of this acid is not enough to change the original concentration of the acid, but is enough to make the dissociation of water insignificant
Why is pH temperature dependant?
PH is temperature dependant due to the fact that changing the temperature at which a reaction happens will also change the position of equilibrium in an acid dissociation due to enthalpy changes in the reaction. Because of this the concentration of H+ ions will change, and consequently the pH will also change.
What is a buffer solution?
A buffer solution is a solution that resists pH changes due to small amounts of acid or alkali being added.
Estimate the pH of an alkaline buffer solution.
Slightly above 7
Estimate the pH of an acidic buffer solution
Slightly below 7
When a weak acid is at half, neutralization it is considered a buffer solution. What is half neutralisation, and why is this a useful buffer?
Half neutralisation is when exactly half of the weak acid has been neutralised. pH=pKa. This is useful because the buffer is equally good at resisting alkaline and acidic pH changes.
When selecting an indicator for a titration, what is important to consider?
That the colour change is clear and easy to observe, and occurs in a pH range within the pH change at the equivalence point.
Write the equation, or equations for the neutralisation of sulfuric acid with sodium hydroxide.
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What is a chirally active molecule?
A molecule which is non–superimposable onto it's mirror image.
What are optical isomers?
Non–superimposable mirror images of each other
What is a racemic or racemate mixture?
A mixture containing two optical isomers, each in equal concntration
How do we distinguish between optical isomers?
We shine polarized light through them. One optical isomer will rotate polarized light left, and one will rotate polarized light right.
Why does the body produce only one enantiomer, when we produce both?
Because the body uses enzymes to break apart bigger molecules into smaller ones, and because of the shape of enzymes the chiral molecule can only enter in one orientation, and so only one enantiomer is produced. When we produce a chemical, we build it through reactions, and when a molecule is made chiral, the Reactants can attack from above or below the carbon, and so two isomers are produced
Why might two different optical isomers behave differently in the body?
Because one isomer may be able to reach the receptor in a cell and do its job, and the other may not be able to reach the same receptor due to restrictions in space, and so may join another receptor, or do nothing.
Write the equation, or equatIons for the complete oxidation of ethanol.
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Write the equation, or equatIons for the complete oxidation of propane–2–ol
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Why can't we oxidize tertiary alchahols?
Tertiary alchahols do not have a hydrogen on the carbon atom containing the OH group, meaning the oxidization mechanism can not be completed.
Why can't keytones be further oxidised by potassium dichromate?
Because potassium dichromate is not a strong enough oxidizing agent to break the C–C on the carbon atom containing the C=O.
Write the equation, or equations for the complete reduction of propanone.
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Write the equation, or equations for the complete reduction of ethanoic acid.
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Give a suitable reagent and conditions for oxidizing alchahols.
Acidified Potassium dichromate
Give a suitable reagent, or reagents for reducing keytones
NaBH4 and H2SO4
Give a suitable reagent for reducing carboxylic acids
NaBH4 and H2SO4
Write and name the mechanism for the reaction of hydrogen cyanide and propanone. Name the product, or products.
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Write and name the mechanism for the reduction of propanone. Name a suitable reagent(s) for this process.
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Write and name the mechanism for the reaction between ethanoyl chloride and methanol. Give the product name(s)
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Write the and name mechanism for the hydrolysis of ethanoic anhydride. Give the name for this type of reaction and product (s). What are the conditions for this reaction ?
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How can you differentiate between an acyl chloride and an anhydride?
Add cold water to both solutions. The one that starts reacting is the acyl chloride. If unsure which is reacting, waft ammonia over both. The acyl chloride will form misty white fumes, while the anhydride will not.
Why do we use anhydride instead of acyl chloride commercially?
Because anhydride is cheaper, less corrosive, and safer as it produces a weak acid instead of a strong one. Additionally, it does not easily react with water.
Write the mechanism for the reaction between ethanoyl chloride and ammonia. name the product (s).
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Write the mechanism for the reaction between ethanoyl chloride and ammonia. name the product(s).
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What is the equation for the reaction between ethanoyl chloride and water.
CH3COCL + H2O –––> CH3COOH + HCl
What is the equation for the reaction between ethanoic anhydride and water.
CH3COOCOCH3 + H2O –––––> 2 CH3COOH
Write the equation for the reaction between ethanoic anhydride and ammonia.
CH3COOCOCH3 + 2NH3 –––––> CH3COOH + CH3CONH2
Write the equation for the reaction between ethanoic anhydride and ammonia.
CH3COCl+ 2NH3 –––––> NH4Cl + CH3CONH2
Write the general equation for a reaction between carboxylic acid and alchahol.
Carboxylic acid + alchahol <–––––> ester + H2O
The addition of a strong acid to an ester produces an equilibrium of a carboxylic and acid on one side, and an ester and water one the other side. What happens if we add sodium hydroxide to the mixture? What is this process called?
The sodium hydroxide will react with the carboxylic acid, neutralizing it to RCOONa. This happens until the reaction goes to completion. This is a soap molecule, and the process is called saponification.
What is saponification?
The addition of a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide to an ester, producing soap.
What do you get when reacting an acyl chloride with an alchahol?
An ester and hydrochloric acid.
What is formed when propanoic anhydride is reacted with methanol?
Methyl propanoate and propanoic acid.
If we acylate an acid chloride with a primary amine, what is formed?
An n–substituted amide.
When making asprin, we need to acylate 2–hydroxybenzoic acid to produce asprin.two reagents that could be used to facilitate this reaction are ethanoyl chloride and ethanoic anhydride. Which one is used in large scale production? Show the structure of asprin.
Ethanoic anhydride
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Draw the mechanism for the production of biodiesel. What other product is produced through this process?
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What process, or processes produce glycerol?
Saponification of oils and biodiesel production.
What is glycerol used for? Draw the structure
Glycerol is used in medicines, toothpaste and the pharmaceutical industry
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Why does benzene favour substitution instead of addition?
To undergo addition requires delocalisation energy to be put in, and chemicals tend to follow the path of least energy input.
Describe benzene's unusual structure, and explain why it is more thermodynamically stable than expected. Discuss it's bond angles and shape.
Benzene is composed of 6 carbons in a cyclic ring, each with one hydrogen bonded to it. It is a perfect hexagon, with each bond angle being 120° The additional delocalised 6 electrons form a half–pi orbital around the ring. This half–pi orbital makes benzene very thermodynamically stable.
What is dynamic equilibrium?
When the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward reaction, such that the amount of products and reagents are constant.
Write the equation(s) for the production of the nitryl cation, and draw the mechanism for the nitration of benzene.
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Draw the mechanism for the acylation of benzene.
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Write the overall equation for the nitration of benzene. State any catalysts.
HNO3 + C6H6 –––H2SO4–––>
C6H5NO2 + H2O
Write the overall equation for the alkylation of ethylbenzene. Write the catalyst for the reaction aswell.
C6H6 + CH2CH2 ––––––––HCl+ AlCl3––> C6H5CH2CH3
Draw the mechanism for the alkylation of ethylbenzene
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Benzene reacts with HCL and ethene. Name the major product formed in this reaction.
Ethylbenzene
Draw the equation for the reduction of nitrobenzene. Name the end product, reagents and catalyst
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Draw and name the mechanism for the reaction between ammonia and chloroethane
Nucleophilic substitution
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Primary amines can be produced by adding ammonia to an excess of haloalkanes. Why would the reduction of nitrile be favored over this method?
The primary amines can go on and react further to form secondary and tertiary amines. The reduction of nitriles will only produce primary amines.
Draw the equation for the reduction of ethanitrile. State the catalyst for this reaction, and name the process involved and products formed.
"CH3CN + 2H2 ––––––Ni–––––> CH3CH2NH2

The process is called Catalytic Hydrogenation"
Write an equation with an amine and HCL demonstrating amine's basic properties
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"Write these in order of base stregnth:

Phenylamine


Methylamine


Dipropylamine


Ethyl dimethylamine


Ammonia
Ethyl dimethylamine

Dipropylamine


Methylamine


Ammonia


Phenylamine

With the kekule structure for benzene, Phenylamine should have the same bascicity as any other primary amine. Explain why this is not the case
Because benzen's half pi orbital draws nitrogen bonding pair of electrons in the delocalised ring, making the lone pair of electrons less available for bonding with other species.
Draw 4–aminobutanoic acid in a pH of 13
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What is a zwitterion?
A zwitterion is an ion with both positive and negative charges on the same molecule. This can happen if an amino acid reacts with itself.
Why do amino acids have high melting points?
Because they act as zwitterions. This makes every amino acid ionically bonded to another, creating a strong ionic structure.
Draw an amino acid in low ph
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What advantages and disadvantages can condensation polymers have over addition polymers?
"Condensation polymers:

Advantages


Easily hydrolised and recyclable


Biodegradable




Disadvantages


Less durable than addition polymers.
What combinations of molecules can form condensation polymers?
Amino acids with amino acids

Diamines with dicarboxylic acids


Dicarboxylic acids and diols
How do you break peptide links?
By boiling in conc. HCL for over 24 hours
What types of polymers do alkenes form?
Addition polymers
Polyamides can form hydrogen bonds when bonded in the helix form. What Impact does this have on the properties of polyamides?
This results in stretchy fabrics. When you stretch the fabric, the hydrogen bonds will stretch and retract, although washing at high temperatures will cause the hydrogen bonds break and reform, which may permanently deform the fabric.
How do you hydrolise polyesters?
Boiling with conc. NaOH
One of the advantages of condensation polymers is that they are recyclable. Explain why this might be difficult.
When condensation polymers are used in commercial products, they are usually mixed with all sorts of other chemicals such as dyes. All of the unwanted chemicals must be filtered out before the polymers can be recycled, which can be time consuming, difficult and expensive.
What is a possible test for alkenes? Give the mechanism for the test, and explain what you observe, and why you observe it.
Bromine water test. Aqueous bromine is brown, and when it reacts with an alkene through electrophilic addition. Bromoalkanes are colourless, and so a colour change from brown to colourless is observed.
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What is a possible test for carboxylic acids? Give the equation for the test, and explain what you observe.
"Sodium carbonate, effervescence observed

2RCOOH + Na2CO3––––––> CO2 + H2O + 2RCOONa


Sodium displaces hydrogen in the carboxylic acid, protons react with CO3 2– ions forming water and CO2 gas bubbles.
What is a possible test for aldehyde? explain what you observe, and why you observe it.
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Explain the process you would go through to differentiate between 1°, 2° and 3° alchahols. Eplain what you would observe, and the chemistry behind your observations.
"To find the tertiary alchahol, add acidified Potassium dichromate to all solutions. The dichromate is strong enough to oxidize primary and secondary alchahols, but not tertiary. When dichromate is reduced, it's colour goes from orange to green, so this colour change is seen in the test tube for 1° and 2° alchahols, but the tertiary one will provide no observable change.
You then take the oxidised primary and secondary alchahols, and perform either fehlings or tollens on them"
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How do you differentiate between acyl chloride and acid anhydrides?
Add both separately to cold water. The anhydride will react very slowly, while the acyl chloride will react violently. If still unsure, you can waft ammonia over each. The acyl chloride will produce a thick white smoke, while the anhydride will produce nothing.
What is the baseline molecule for proton and carbon nmr? Why?
Tetramethylsilane. We use this because it is inert, and non toxic so it can be easily handled and be put in all analysis samples without worry of contamination. Additionally, it has only 4 identical carbon environments and 12 identical hydrogen envoroments. This means it produces one clear, tall peak in both carbon and Hydrogen nmr
How can you identify a molecule containing chlorine in a mass spec?
"There will be an additional M+2 peak after the molecular ion peak in the spectrum, due to chlorine having two isotopes, one being 2 neutrons heavier than the other.Both the peaks will occur in a ratio of 3:1, with the molecular ion peak being the biggest."
How can you identify a molecule containing bromine in a mass spec?
There will be an additional M+2 peak after the molecular ion peak in the spectrum, due to bromine having two isotopes, one being 2 neutrons heavier than the other. Both peaks will be equal in height, due to both isotopes occurring in equal proportion.
How do you find the number of carbon atoms in a molecule from a mass spec?
Divide the height of the M+1 peak by the M peak and multiply by 100
Name a reagent (s) for the complete reduction of benzene. State the name of the end structure.
H2 and (Nickel/platinum catalyst) Cyclohexane
What is a nucleophile?
A species with a lone pair of electrons to donate
What is an electrophile?
An electron pair acceptor