Chapters 5-7 Biology

Front 1

Osmosis

Back 1

the spontaneous net movement of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.

Front 2

glycolysis

Back 2

the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid.

Front 3

what are the three main parts to cellular respiration?

Back 3

Glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, and cellular respiration

Front 4

What is energy?

Back 4

the capacity to cause change

Front 5

Kinetic energy

Back 5

the energy of motion (the capacity to cause change through motion).

Front 6

whats the conservation of energy?

Back 6

the theory that energy can not be created nor destroyed.

Front 7

What is potential energy?

Back 7

The energy an object has because of its location or structure. At every moment an individual has a degree of potential energy.

Front 8

What is the relationship between kinetic energy and potential energy?

Back 8

It takes kinetic energy to form potential energy, which reverted back to kinetic energy at the moment of movement or impact. (A diver using kinetic energy to climb a ladder, at the top she has the highest potential energy, and therefore the most kinetic energy for that motion.)

Front 9

Heat energy

Back 9

The amount of kinetic energy contained in the movement of atoms and molecules in the body of matter. All energy conversions create some type of heat, just like hydrogen bonds. It is the most chaotic form of energy

Front 10

Entropy

Back 10

A measure of the amount of disorder, or randomness, in a system. Entropy increases whenever there is energy is converted.

Front 11

What is chemical energy?

Back 11

Energy stored in chemical bonds of molecules, a form of potential energy. This arise from the arrangement of atoms and can be released during a chemical reaction.

Front 12

How much energy is utilized in an engine when breaking down gasoline?

Back 12

25%, while the rest is lost to heat

Front 13

How much energy does the body utilize, and what does it do with the heat energy?

Back 13

Roughly 34% is used, while the rest is used to maintain homeostasis, or our temperature equilibrium.

Front 14

calorie

Back 14

The amount of energy it takes to heat up one gram of water by 1 degree Celsius

Front 15

What is more conventional to use for calories?

Back 15

Kilocalories and Kilograms

Front 16

ATP

Back 16

Adenosine Triphosphate; Adenosine is an organic molecule, followed by a tail of three phosphate groups. Each phosphate is negatively charged. Having these three negatively charged phosphate groups creates potential energy.

Front 17

What happens when ATP is used?

Back 17

The end phosphate group is released, creating Adenosine diphosphate. ATP binds to the site, and releases energy when the movement is completed. The transfer of energy splits inorganic phosphate and ADP, and releases them from the binding site. A new ATP comes to the binding site to repeat the process.

Front 18

What does hydrolyze mean?

Back 18

breaks down a substance by reaction with water

Front 19

When is ATP formed?

Back 19

ATP is formed during cellular respiration when ADP and inorganic phosphate are reactants which produce ATP.

Front 20

metabolism

Back 20

The total of the chemical reactions within an organism.

Front 21

Enzymes

Back 21

Proteins that speed up or facilitate the chemical reactions without being consumed by them.

Front 22

What is activation energy?

Back 22

The energy that is invested to start a chemical reaction.

Front 23

why are enzymes important?

Back 23

Enzymes help by reducing the amount of energy it takes to break the bonds of reactant molecules. Enzymes bind to the reactant molecules and puts them under stress.

Front 24

Substrate

Back 24

The specific reactant on which an enzyme acts upon

Front 25

active sites

Back 25

A region of the enzyme that has the shape and chemistry that matches the substrate molecule.

Front 26

Induced fit

Back 26

When the active site changes shape slightly to embrace the substrate and catalyze the reaction.

Front 27

How are enzymes named?

Back 27

Usually they are named after their substrate

Front 28

What are enzyme inhibitors?

Back 28

Molecules that inhibit a metabolic reaction by binding to an enzyme and disrupting its function.

Front 29

competitive inhibitors

Back 29

Any compound which closely resembles the chemical structure and molecular geometry of the substrate. The inhibitor competes for the same active site as the substrate molecule. The inhibitor may interact with the enzyme at the active site, but no reaction takes place.

Front 30

What are five benefits to membrane proteins?

Back 30

Cell signaling: a binding site fits the shape of a chemical messenger. It may cause a change in the protein which relays the signal to the inside of the cell.

Attachment of the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix: the protein helps the cell stay in shape and coordinate changes.

Enzymatic activity: Helps the substrate form products.

Transport: It may provide a channel for a substance to pass through.

Intercellular joining: proteins may link adjacent cells

Front 31

Diffusion

Back 31

The movement of molecules spreading out evenly into the available space from high concentration to low concentration.

Front 32

Passive transport

Back 32

When a substance passes through the plasma membrane/ diffusion without any energy being expended.

Front 33

Based on your knowledge of the process of photosynthesis, would a plant under a red light survive better than a green light?

Back 33

Yes, since green light is reflected by the chlorophyll

Front 34

What is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis?

Back 34

ATP, NADPH, O₂

Front 35

The Calvin cycle constructs ___, an energy-rich molecule that a plant cell can then use to make glucose or other organic molecules

Back 35

G3P

Front 36

How do cells transport small, nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules, such as fatty acids or steroid hormones across the cell membrane?a) Such molecules diffuse freely.b) Via active transport.c) Via endocytosis.d) None of these choices.

Back 36

Such molecules diffuse freely.

Front 37

Which of the following characteristics affects the diffusion of a substance through the membrane?a) sizeb) degree of hydrophobicityc) concentrationd) all of these

Back 37

a) sizeb) degree of hydrophobicityc) concentrationd) all of these

Front 38

What would happen to red blood cells placed in an isotonic solution?a) Cells would lyse.b) Cells would shrink.c) Cells would maintain a constant volume.d) None of these.

Back 38

Cells would maintain a constant volume

Front 39

Redox reactions: (oxidation, reduction)

Back 39

An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron. OIL, RIG

Front 40

facilitated diffusion

Back 40

Still a form of diffusion. The transportation of substances via proteins, assisted transport. Binds substance to carrier protein, and the protein changes shape

Front 41

Solute

Back 41

A substance the dissolves in a solvent

Front 42

What is hypotonic?

Back 42

It is when the concentration gradient of a solute is not at equilibrium in comparison to the cell. The cell has a higher concentration of solutes than the exterior. Lysing can occur due to osmosis trying to solve the issue by diffusion

Front 43

Hypertonic

Back 43

It is when the concentration gradient is higher on the exterior comparative to the cell. Shriveling can occur by the cell being drained of its water through osmosis.

Front 44

Isotonic

Back 44

When the solute is in equilibrium

Front 45

Osmoregulation

Back 45

The maintenance of constant osmotic pressure in the fluids of an organism by the control of water and salt concentrations.

Front 46

Active Transport

Back 46

Requires that a cell uses energy expends energy to move molecules across a membrane. Cellular energy (ATP) is used to drive a transport protein that pumps a solute against the concentration gradient.

This allows for cells to maintain internal concentrations of small solutes that may differ from the environmental concentrations.

Front 47

Phagocytosis

Back 47

The packaging of a particle by a cell engulfing it.

Front 48

Phagosome

Back 48

The vesicle that contains the engulfed particle.

Front 49

photosynthesis

Back 49

The conversion of energy from sunlight to to chemical energy such as sugars and other organic molecules

Front 50

Autotrophs

Back 50

Organisms that make all their own organic matter, including the four molecules of life from inorganic nutrients, such as carbon dioxide, water, and minerals from the soil. It is also known as a producer

Front 51

Heterotrophs

Back 51

Organisms that can not make organic molecules from inorganic ones. Therefore, they rely upon consuming another organism to obtain the nutrients they need. Its also known as a consumer

Front 52

What does photosynthesis do?

Back 52

chloroplasts within the cells utilize both 6 H2O and 6 CO2 with UV rays to produce glucose and 6 O2.

Front 53

Aerobic process

Back 53

A process by which the cell obtains ATP with including Oxygen in the process.

Front 54

What is cellular respiration?

Back 54

The aerobic harvesting of chemical energy from organic fuel molecules. Its byproducts are 6 carbon dioxide, 6 H2O, and about 32 ATP

Front 55

What three stages are in cellular respiration?

Back 55

Glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation

Front 56

What is Glycolysis?

Back 56

Glucose is split into two molecules called pyruvic acid. Enzymes are located outside in the cytosol for this form of anaerobic respiration.

Front 57

What are the steps for glycolysis?

Back 57

Two three carbon molecules are formed by 2 ATP molecules which splits the 6 carbon glucose molecule. i(norganic)P(hosphate) reacts at the end of the 3 carbon molecule, along with another iP.Both three carbon molecules then donate high energy electrons to cation NAD, forming NADH.

After, ADP and the glucose with iP meet at an enzyme, transferring the iP and creating ATP. Since there is iP on both ends, that single 3 carbon molecule produces 2 ATP. Although gross production was 4, Net was 2 ATP, along with 2 pyruvic acid byproducts.

Front 58

What is the Kreb's cycle?

Back 58

Also known as the citric acid cycle, it completes the breakdown of glucose, or C6H1206. They are broken all the way down to CO2, and are released as a waste product. The enzymes used for the cycle are then dissolved in the fluid of the mitochondrion.

Front 59

What are the steps of the kern cycle?

Back 59

Pyruvic acid loses a C02, and forms acetic acid. Once again, electrons are stripped from the molecule, which are transferred to cation NAD, forming NADH.

Acetic acid then attaches to Coenzyme A, which escorts the acetic acid to the first reaction of the Kreb cycle. The Coenzyme A is then removed and reused in the process.

Acetic acid then joins a four carbon acceptor molecule to form a six carbon molecule called citric acid. For every acetic acid that joins, two CO2 will be a waste product.

Per acetic acid, one ATP will be formed, three NADH, and one FADH2. The acceptor molecule is the reused.

Front 60

What is ETC/ Oxidative phosphorylation

Back 60

Kreb’s and glycolysis both generate 2 ATP. They indirectly help generate more ATP, by reactions that transfer electrons from fuel molecules to a cation NAD. The electron transfer helps from a molecule NADH (H represents the involvement of a Hydrogen atom). NADH captured the released high energy electrons and brings them over for the final stage.

Front 61

what is NAD?

Back 61

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

Front 62

What are the steps to OxPh

Back 62

Two electrons are passed from NADH to NADH dehydrogenase. Coupled with the transfer of the electrons is one hydrogen cation pumped through the protein to the inter membrane space for each electron.

This carries it to the Ubiquinone, a protein carrier, which transfers the two electrons to the cytochrome b-C1.

Each electron is then sent to Cytochrome C by an hydrogen ion which is pumped through cytochrome b-C1. Cytochrome C accepts only one electron at a time. In the cytochrome C oxidase, four electrons are required.

Within the cytochrome C oxidase, a molecular oxygen molecule and eight hydrogen atoms interact. Four electrons, four hydrogen atoms, and the oxygen molecule form two water molecules, while the other four hydrogen ions are pumped through the complex to through the inner membrane space. This creates a hydrogen ion gradient, which the ATP synthase uses as potential energy to create ATP. This gradient is formed by the inner mitochondrial membrane, spacing the matrix and the space between membranes.

Once three hydrogen cations have passed into the matrix space, there is enough energy to react ADP and inorganic phosphate. This results in about 28 ATP.

Front 63

What can be converted into ATP?

Back 63

Carbohydrates, some amino acids, and glycerols use all three of the cycles, Fatty acids and some amino acids use the krebs cycle

Front 64

fermentation

Back 64

The anaerobic harvest of energy from food by some cells. Different pathways of fermentation lead to different end products, such as ethanol or lactic acid.

Front 65

How long do muscle have to be subjected to strenuous, oxygen lacking work before they begin fermentation?

Back 65

Muscles will begin to use fermentation after 15 seconds of anaerobic work

Front 66

What happens in animal cells during fermentation?

Back 66

Under strenuous situations where O2 can not be absorbed or used, the electrons that would typically transfer to cation NAD to the pyruvic acid, so the NAD can continue to take the electrons to produce ATP, creating Lactic acid.

Front 67

Yeast fermentation

Back 67

Once it has used ATP to separate the glucose and form the two 3 carbons, and transferred the two electrons to the two carbon molecules called ethyl alcohol. Two carbon dioxides are released as byproducts, which causes the bread to rise.

Front 68

what are chloroplasts?

Back 68

light absorbing organelles of the plant cell Leaves have the most chloroplasts, due to its surface area. It has about 500,000 chloroplasts per square millimeter.

Front 69

How many chloroplasts are in a typical cell?

Back 69

30-40

Front 70

What is chlorophyll?

Back 70

a pigment, light absorbing molecule within the chloroplast. It plays a central role in the absorption of UV rays, and converting it. Decreased temperatures result in the reduction of chlorophyll, which allows the carotenoids to be visible.

Front 71

Why is chlorophyll green?

Back 71

The light/wavelength predominantly reflected off of the chlorophyll/ chloroplast by extension is green, since blue, red, violet, and yellow are absorbed.

Front 72

what is chlorophyll a?

Back 72

A pigment that absorbs blue, violet, and red light

Front 73

what is chlorophyll b?

Back 73

A pigment that absorbs orange and blue light.

Front 74

what are carotenoids?

Back 74

Yellow/orange pigments that absorb blue-green light. They dissipate excess light energy that could damage the chlorophyll, preventing gene mutation.

Front 75

What is the stoma (plural stomata)

Back 75

the pores of the leaf that diffuse oxygen and CO2

Front 76

Hydroponics

Back 76

the process of growing plants in sand, gravel, or liquid, with added nutrients but without soil.

Front 77

Stroma

Back 77

the fluid within the chloroplast

Front 78

Thylakoids

Back 78

One of a number of disk-shaped membranous sacs inside a chloroplast. It contains chlorophyll and the enzymes of the light reactions of photosynthesis. A stack is called a granum.

Front 79

Lumen

Back 79

the inside of the thylakoid membrane.

Front 80

Grana (singular- granum)

Back 80

A stack of hollow disks formed by the thylakoid membrane in a chloroplast. Grana are the sites where light is trapped by chlorophyll and converted to chemical energy during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Front 81

What is the chemical formula for photosynthesis?

Back 81

6 CO2 + 6 H2O → light energy/UV rays→ C6H12O6+ 6 O2

Front 82

What is the chemical formula for Cellular respiration?

Back 82

C6H1206 + 6 O2--> 6 CO2+ 6H2O+ ATP

Front 83

What is a light reaction?

Back 83

Chlorophyll in the thylakoid membranes absorb solar energy which is then converted into chemical energy in the forms of ATP and NADPH. The light reactions power the calvin cycle but do not directly produce the sugar.

Front 84

What are the steps to light reaction?

Back 84

Reaction center: where the primary electron acceptor and reaction center chlorophyll that transfers it are located.

When a photon hits a chlorophyll molecule that can absorb it, it creates resonance energy, which passes on from neighbor to neighbor until it arrives at the reaction center located in photosystem two. The chlorophyll releases an excited electron, which then goes to an Primary electron acceptor. One photon is needed to excite one electron in this chlorophyll. Once two electrons have been excited and transferred to plastoquinone, along with two protons from the lumen. The two electrons lost from the photosystem two are regained from the splitting of H2O(photolysis).

Two Hydrogen ions are released into the lumen, while molecular O2 is created, giving back the two lost electrons. Plastoquinone then transfers the two protons and electrons to the Cytochrome B6F complex. Upon docking, the two protons are released into the lumen, while the two electrons are coupled with two more hydrogen ions from the stroma which go into the lumen space, while the force carries the electrons to plastocyanin, a carrier, to the photosystem 1 complex. Protons again energize the chlorophyll, taking it to the Ferredoxin, which transfers the electrons to the Ferredoxin NADP reductase, or FNR. Once two electrons are transferred to FNR, they interact with NADP cation and a hydrogen ion, to make NADPH. This electron transport chain only helps form a gradient, which is utilized by the ATP synthase. It uses diffusion as a means to power ADP and iP to create ATP. It is similar to how water energizes in a dam.

Front 85

What is NADPH?

Back 85

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogenase, an electron carrier.

Front 86

What is the calvin cycle?

Back 86

The second of the two stages of photosynthesis, a cyclic series of chemical reactions that occur in the stroma of the chloroplast, using the carbon in CO2 and the ATP and NADPH produced by the light reactions to make the energy rich sugar molecule G3P, which is later used to produce glucose.

Front 87

What are the steps for the calvin cycle?

Back 87

Takes place in the stroma, carbon dioxide is fixed by an enzyme called Rubisco, which adds carbon dioxide to ribulose bisphosphate, or RuBP. These form two molecules.

O2 molecules are joined to six RuBP molecules, which forms six molecules that have six carbons. These fall apart spontaneously, which form 12 molecules of 3 carbons each, or PGA. Next, 12 ATP and NADPH are used to convert 12 PGA molecules to 12 G3P molecules. Each PGA molecule receives one phosphate from ATP, to form an intermediate molecule called 3 phosphoglyceraldehyde, or PGAL. PGAL then uses the high energy electrons from NADPH to convert them to Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, or G3P. Next, 2 of the G3P will leave the cycle to be converted into glucose or whatever the cell needs, organic wise. The remaining 10 G3P must be converted back to RuBP in order to replicate the process. An enzyme converts the remaining molecules into six five carbon compounds. 6 ATP is used to catalyze the conversion. This is a perpetual cycle as long as ATP and NADPH are present.

Front 88

wavelength

Back 88

The distance across two crests of adjacent waves.

Front 89

electromagnetic spectrum

Back 89

the full range of radiation, from gamma rays to radio signals.

Front 90

photon

Back 90

a fixed quantity of light. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the energy.

Front 91

excited electron

Back 91

The raised state, where the electron is highly unstable, which is heat energy, and almost immediately falls back into a ground state.

Front 92

what is a photosystem?

Back 92

A cluster of a few hundred pigments molecules, including chlorophyll a and b, and carotenoids

Front 93

CAM

Back 93

Crassulacean acid metabolism, also known as CAM photosynthesis, is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as an adaptation to arid conditions. In a plant using full CAM, the stomata in the leaves remain shut during the day to reduce evapotranspiration, but open at night to collect carbon dioxide (CO2) and release oxygen.

Front 94

What are C3 plants?

Back 94

C3 plants are the most common and the most efficient at photosynthesis in cool, wet climates.

Front 95

C4 plants

Back 95

C4 plants are most efficient at photosynthesis in hot, sunny climates.

Front 96

carbon fixation

Back 96

also known as сarbon assimilation refers to the conversion process of inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) to organic compounds by living organisms. The most prominent example is photosynthesis, although chemosynthesis is another form of carbon fixation that can take place in the absence of sunlight.

Front 97

Phosphorylation

Back 97

The addition of a phosphate group (PO43−) to a molecule. Phosphorylation and its counterpart, dephosphorylation, turn many protein enzymes on and off, thereby altering their function and activity.

Front 98

exergonic reaction

Back 98

a reaction where energy is released. Because the reactants lose energy (G decreases), Gibbs free energy (ΔG) is negative under constant temperature and pressure. These reactions usually do not require energy to proceed, and therefore occur spontaneously.

Front 99

Gibbs free energy

Back 99

a thermodynamic quantity equal to the enthalpy (of a system or process) minus the product of the entropy and the absolute temperature.

If delta G is less than Zero, it's a spontaneous reaction. If a Delta G is more than zero, it's a nonspontaneous reaction. A increase in entropy or temperature will increase the spontaneous reaction, thereby decreasing the available energy.

Front 100

Enthalpy

Back 100

Total energy of a system. The total energy of a system decreased or increased synonymously with Potential energy. It uses H as its symbol in a mathematical equation.

Front 101

Entropy

Back 101

A measure of the amount of disorder, or randomness, in a system. Entropy increases whenever there is energy is converted. Its symbol is S.

Front 102

Endergonic reaction

Back 102

(an unfavorable reaction) is a chemical reaction in which the standard change in free energy is positive, and energy is absorbed.

Front 103

The second law of thermodynamics

Back 103

The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated system always increases. Isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermal equilibrium—the state of maximum entropy of the system. More simply put: the entropy of the universe (the ultimate isolated system) only increases and never decreases.

Front 104

noncompetitive inhibitors

Back 104

inhibitors that take a slot in the enzyme, but not directly where the substrate would bind at the active site.

Front 105

Isotonic

Back 105

flaccid

Front 106

Hypotonic

Back 106

Turgid

Front 107

Hypertonic

Back 107

plasmolyze

Front 108

aqauporins

Back 108

are integral membrane proteins that serve as channels in the transfer of water, and in some cases, small solutes across the membrane.

Front 109

tonicity of a solution

Back 109

Determine whether cells regain same size, swells, or shrinks when a solution surrounds the cell, and the extent of which

Front 110

what can pass through the semipermeable bilayer

Back 110

Nonpolar, small, lipid soluble molecules can pass through

Front 111

Symporter

Back 111

an integral membrane protein that is involved in the transport of many differing types of molecules across the cell membrane. The symporter works in the plasma membrane and molecules are transported across the cell membrane at the same time, and is, therefore, a type of cotransporter.