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93 Cards in this Set
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Developmental psychology
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Branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change through out the life span
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Coneception
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Occurs when fertilization creates a ‘zygote’
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Zygote
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-A one celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg.
-Develops into an embryo after the first 2 weeks are rapid cell division |
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Embryo
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The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
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Fetus
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The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
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Prenatal development (3 phases)
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A period from conception to birth, encompassing nine months of pregnancy.
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-Three phases of prenatal period.
40 days, 45 days, 2 months, 4 months |
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Teratogens
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Agents such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development that can cause harm
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E.g. Alcohol, drug use
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Environmental factors and prenatal development
The developing organism and mother are linked through the placenta. List 4 factors that can negatively affect prenatal development. |
–malnutrition is confounded with poverty and limited access to health care.
-recreational drugs are harmful, particularly sedatives, narcotics and cocaine. |
–mother’s eating habits, drug use, and physical health can affect prenatal development (health consequences).
–maternal malnutrition increases the risk of birth complications and neurological defects for the new born. |
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List 2 congenital problems associated with alcohol use during pregnancy
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–microcephaly (small head), heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity.
–delayed mental and motor development. |
-25% of women reported consuming alcohol during pregnancy
-FAS affects 1-3 babies in every 1000 live births. |
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FAS
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Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
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Habituation
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Decreases responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus. Their interest wanes and they look away sooner
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New Born: Many abilities are universal, present at birth or develop early. (2)
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–automatic reflex responses ideally suited for our survival.
-‘rooting reflex’ allows to find the breast. |
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Babies have inborn perceptual abilities
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–discriminate between their mothers and others using smell, sight or sound.
–differentiate between drawing of the faces and mere sketches. |
–three months babies can learn that kicking moves a mobile -- retain that learning for a month.
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Motor development.
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•As infant’s muscles and nervous system mature, skills emerge.
–sequence of physical (motor) development is universal. –this is not imitation but a maturing nervous system. |
Individual differences in timing of development.
–25% of all babies walk by age 11 months, 50% within 13 weeks, and 90% by 15 months. –Kipsigis of Kenya begin active efforts to train their infants to sit up, stand, and walk soon after birth. –acquire the skills earlier than babies in North America. |
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Maturation
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Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behaviour, relatively influenced by experience
-Orderly sequence of biological growth |
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Cognition (cognitive development)
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All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
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Schema
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A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
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Assimilation
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Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
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e.g. a four-legged pet as ‘puppy’ is used for all four-legged animals.
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Accommodation
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Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
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e.g. differentiating between puppies and other animals to adjust ones mental schemes
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Piaget's belief
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-Children construct their understanding of the world while interacting with it
-Children progress in their thinking through the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation. |
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How Piaget became interested in cognitive development
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By focusing on the reasoning underlying the children’s wrong answers.
–interest in children’s use of their intelligence rather measuring their intelligence. |
Piaget regards the age norms as approximations.
–children progress through the stages in the same order. |
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Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
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Sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage Concrete operational Formal operational |
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Sensorimotor stage
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-Birth - 2yr
-Ability to coordinate sensory input with the motor actions. –a child’s behaviour is dominated by innate reflexes. |
–symbolic thought appears, i.e., using mental symbols to represent objects.
•The concept of ‘object permanence’ develops. -Stranger anxiety |
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Preoperational stage
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2yr - 6/7 yr
-Progress in symbolic thought. -Lack of understanding of the principle of ‘conservation’, due to flaws in preoperational thinking |
-Pretend play
-Egocentrism -Irreversibility -Centration |
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Concrete operational
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7yr - 11yr
-Mastering the concepts of reversibility and decentration. -Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations |
Conservation
Mathematical Transformations |
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Formal operationalMathematical
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12yr through adulthood
Applying the operations to abstract concepts. –become more systematic in problem-solving. –thought processes are abstract, systematic, logical, and reflective. |
Abstract logic
Potential for mature moral reasoning |
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Object permanence
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–awareness that objects exist although no longer visible.
–pursue an object that is covered in their presence. |
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Egocentrism
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limited ability to share another person’s viewpoint.
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Irreversibility
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inability to imagine reversing an action.
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Centration
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tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other aspects.
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Conservation
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awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance.
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pouring water from a short glass into a taller glass leaves the amount of water unchanged.
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Babies - Social development (6)
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Babies in all cultures are social creatures.
–develop an intense bond with their caregivers. –after object permanence emerges children become mobile. –develop ‘stranger anxiety’. |
–acquire schemas for familiar faces.
–if unable to assimilate the new face into these remembered schemas, they become distressed. –simultaneous development of brain, mind, and social-emotional behaviour. |
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Attachment
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An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on seperation
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-Forms attachment with many people
-First attachment is with the mother -Body contact |
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Stranger anxiety
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The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by around 8 months
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Separation anxiety
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–emotional distress seen in infants when separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment.
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Experiment on Monkeys raised in solitary cages
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–when separated from cheesecloth baby blanket, they became distressed.
–contradicts the idea that attachment develops through nourishment. |
Human infants, too, become attached to parents who are soft and warm; also rock, feed, and pat.
Via: touch, either soothing (snuggles) or arousing (tickles). |
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When does parent-infant emotional communication occur
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–one person provides another with a secure base; and a safe haven when distressed.
–while maturing, the secure base shifts—from parents to peers and partners. |
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Attachment: based on Familiarity form during a critical period
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–an optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development.
–in birds this period is hours shortly after hatching, and seeing the first moving object called ‘imprinting’. –imprinting is best to own species. –may occur to a variety of moving objects. –once formed, this attachment is difficult to reverse. |
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Canadian research on attachment (Anisworth, 1979).
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mothers who are responsive to their children’s needs evoke secure attachments than those insensitive in their responding.
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Factors in insecure attachment
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(1) abandonment and deprivation.
(2) abusive, neglectful, or erratic parenting. (3) genetically determined temperament of the babies, such as fearfulness and crying. (4) stressful circumstance in the family. |
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Patterns of infant mother attachment 4
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•Secure attachment.
–comfortable with the mothers, become upset when she leaves, and are calmed by her return. •Anxious-ambivalent attachment. –anxious even when the mother is near and protest when she leaves, but are not comforted when she returns. |
•Avoidant attachment.
–seek little contact with the mother and often are not distressed when she leaves. •Deprivation of attachment. |
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Impact of child neglect, abuse, or family troubles on attachments (6)
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–orphaned children fare better on later intelligence tests if raised in family homes; earlier better.
–abusive parents— condemned murderers—report neglect or battering as children. –survivors of physical and sexual abuse are at risk for health and psychological problems, substance abuse, and criminality. |
–withdrawn, frightened, even speechless.
–those reared in institutions without the stimulation and attention of a caregiver. –deprivation of healthy attachments causes lower intelligence scores and high rate of anxiety symptoms. |
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Basic trust
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-Erik Erikson.
-A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers |
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Parenting styles
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Authoritarian
Permissive Authoritative |
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Authoritarian
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-Parents impose rules and expect oberdiance "Why? because I said so"
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Permissive
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-Parents submit to their childrens desires. They make few demands and use little punishment
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Authoritative
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-Both demanding and responsive. Exert control by setting rules and reinforcing them, and also explain the reason for the rules
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Adolescence
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–a transitional period between childhood and adulthood.
–sense of self undergoes critical changes. |
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What changes occur in adolescence (cognative)?
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–interpersonal roles and relationships.
–the capacity for self-reflection and cognition. –transformation of sense of self. -convulsive instability and disturbing inner turmoil. |
–attributable to adolescents’ erratic physical changes and resultant confusion about self-image.
– looking back on their teenage years they recall –peers’ social approval was imperative. –sense of direction in life was in flux. –their feeling of alienation from their parents was deepest |
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What changes occur in adolescence (physical)?
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-Puberty starts with hormonal changes.
-Pubescence. |
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What is Pubescence
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–the two-year span preceding puberty.
–phase of rapid growth called ‘adolescent growth spurt’. |
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Male characteristics during adolescence
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–voice changes, facial hairs, skeletal and muscle growth in upper torso leading to broader shoulders.
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Female characteristics during adolescence
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–breast growth, widening of the pelvic bones and increased fat deposits in this area that results in wider hips.
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Primary sex characteristics (adolescence)
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•Primary sex characteristics appear during puberty (necessary for reproduction).
•Males: testes, penis, and related internal structure. •Female: ovaries, vagina, uterus, and other internal structures. |
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Secondary sex characteristics (adolescence)
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–physical features distinguishing one sex from the other but are not essential for reproduction.
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What is puberty signaled by in females?
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Menarche
–first menstruation reflecting hormonal changes -Average interval between a woman’s menarche and marriage. 1890’s about 7.2 years. 1995 about 12.5 years. |
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Puberty
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The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
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Early maturation among males.
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–greater use of alcohol and drugs.
–more high-risk behaviour. –more trouble with the law. |
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Early maturation among females.
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–poor school performance.
–earlier experience of intercourse and unwanted pregnancy. –greater risk for eating disorders. |
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Brain development in adolescence
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–frontal lobes continue to develop.
–growth of myelin enables better communication with other brain regions. –improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning. –hormonal surge and limbic system development help explain teens’ impulsiveness, risky behaviours, and emotional storms. |
–unfinished frontal lobes not fully equipped for making long - term plans and curbing impulses.
–vulnerability to risks of smoking, fast driving or unprotected sex. –teen brain’s immaturity in areas related to decision making makes them less guilty by reason of adolescence. |
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Moral development and reasoning power.
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Thinking about what is ideally possible and comparing that with the imperfect reality of the society.
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Moral reasoning
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The thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong
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Kohlberg’s stage theory.
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•Used moral dilemmas to study development of moral reasoning.
•A person’s wife is suffering from cancer; needs a drug which is very expensive. –person is unable to buy it; the pharmacist does not reduce the price. –person breaks in the store to get the drug. •Reasoning behind the answers is important than the decision. |
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Progresses in moral development
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focus of concern moves from the self to the social world.
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What is the division of the three levels of moral development into two sub levels yields six stages?
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Preconventional level
Conventional level Postcoventional level -Kohlberg’s theory focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour. -represent a different approach to thinking about right or wrong. |
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Preconventional level
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•Children think in terms of external authority.
–acts are wrong or right because they have negative or positive consequences. |
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Conventional level
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•Older children see rules as necessary for maintaining social order.
–internalize the rules not to avoid punishment but to be virtuous and win approval from others. –moral thinking is relatively inflexible. –rules are viewed as absolute guidelines that should be enforced. |
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Postcoventional level
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•Involves working out a personal code of ethics.
–acceptance of rules is less rigid, moral thinking shows flexibility. |
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What Cultural disparities exist in people’s progress through Kohlberg’s stages
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–value judgements of the theory reflect a liberal, individualistic ideology.
–theory is biased against the equally principled moral reasoning of females. |
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Gilligan argues that males and females are socialized differently. What are the differences?
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–focus on individualism in morality of justice in males.
–focus on relationships in morality of care in females. |
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Moral action. What is morality?
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Morality involves doing the right thing.
–social influences are also important. –willingness to cheat, to discriminate racially, and to smoke marijuana are not neatly determined by the attitudes toward cheating, race and drugs. |
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What do character education programs involve?
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–moral package focuses on thinking, feeling, and doing the right thing.
–teach children empathy for others’ feelings, and the self-discipline needed to restrain one’s own impulses. –delay small gratifications now to enable bigger rewards later. -learning to delay gratification makes more socially responsible, academically successful, and productive. |
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Forming an identity
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•Adolescents in individualistic cultures usually try out different “selves” in different situations.
–act out one self at home, another with friends, and still another at school/facebook. |
•Group identities are formed by how we differ from those around us.
•Minority groups often forms social identity around their distinctiveness. •Some adolescents forge their identity early by adopting their parents’ values and expectations (Erikson, 1963). |
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Key task of adolescence (Damon et al., 2003).
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-a desire to accomplish something personally meaningful that makes a difference to the world beyond oneself.
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Social Identity
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The "we" aspect of our self concept; the part of our answer to "who am I" That comes from our group memberships
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Intamacy
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In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships: a primary development task in late adolescence and early adulthood
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Identity
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Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescencents task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
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Emerging adulthood
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For some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood
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Adulthood
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•More difficult to generalize about adulthood stages than about life’s early years.
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What are the three terms for adulthood?
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–early adulthood (twenties and thirties), middle adulthood (to age 65), and late adulthood (years after 65).
–wide variations in physical, psychological, and social development within each of these stages. |
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Physical development (adulthood)
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•Physical abilities- muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output decline in our mid-twenties.
•Physical changes in middle adulthood. |
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Post 40 physical decline gradually accelerates.
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–during early and middle adulthood, physical vigour has less to do with age than with a person’s health and exercise habits.
–gradual decline in fertility, especially for women; for a 35 to 39-year old woman, the pregnancy chance decline. –most men and women remain capable of satisfying sexual activity, and express satisfaction with their sex life. –parental influence over children declines as they grow up, parents face an ‘empty nest’. |
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Physical changes in later life
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•Many physical changes occur through adulthood.
–hair thin out and become grey. –many males confront receding hairlines and baldness. –the proportion of body fat increases with age, while the amount of muscle tissue decreases. |
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Sensory changes in later life
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•In the sensory domain, the changes occur in vision and hearing.
•Decline in the normal vision in old age the aging senses •Decline in hearing ability in the old age the aging senses |
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What are the woman's hormonal changes?
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•Among women the changes lead to menopause.
–ending of menstrual periods and loss of fertility (appox age 50). •Experiencing of some unpleasant symptoms. –hot flashes, headaches, night sweats, mood changes. |
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What are the man's hormonal changes?
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–there is decline in sperm count, testosterone level, and speed of erection and ejaculation.
–decreases not associated with the symptoms comparable to women. |
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More changes that come with later aging
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-Brain disorders in old age
-Cognitive changes in the old age -Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age. -Nonverbal intelligence scores decline. |
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Memory and old age
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•Some studies report decrease in older adults’ memory capabilities.
•The type of memory affected. –decrements are seen in ‘episodic’ and ‘working’ memory. –less consistent losses are observed on tasks involving ‘procedural’ and ‘semantic’ memory. |
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In the cognitive domain the speed is affected
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–speed in learning, solving problems, and processing information decline with age.
–problem-solving ability remains largely unimpaired. –if given adequate time to compensate for their reduced speed they can solve problems. |
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Menopause
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The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
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Cross-sectional study
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A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
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longitudinal study
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Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time
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Social clock
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The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
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