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166 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Definition of Physiology
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Study of Functions of Living Things
1. Emphasis on purpose of body process (why?) i. Explanations are in terms of meeting bodily need 2. Emphasis on Mechanism (how?) i. Explanations are in terms of cause and effect sequences |
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Definition of Anatomy
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Study of the structure of the body
Physiological mechanisms are possible through structural design Structure-function relationships of the body include (heart receiving and pumping blood) |
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Definition of Pathophysiology
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How the body is affected by disease or disorder.
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Describe organization of cells, tissues, organs, and systems.
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Cells make up tissue which forms organs which function together to form a homeostatic system.
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Cells
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Body's structural and functional building blocks
Smallest unit capable of carrying out life processes 200 kinds make up the trillions of cells in the body |
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Basic functions performed by cells
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• Obtain nutrients and oxygen from surrounding environment
• Performs chemical reactions that provide energy for the cell • Eliminate carbon dioxide and other wastes to surrounding environment • Synthesize needed cellular components, such as proteins • Moving materials internally from one part of cell to another and in some cases move through surrounding environment • Control exchange of materials between cell and its surrounding environment • Sensing and responding to changes in surrounding environment • Reproduction -- exception: nerve cells and muscle cells lose their ability to reproduce during their early development |
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4 primary tissues
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Muscle
Nervous Epithelial Connective |
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Define Set Point
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Desired level of a variable or system where it functions best
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Define Negative Feedback
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Most common in human body
Triggers a response that seeks to restore the factor to original (set point) Functions in the opposite direction of initial change Restores homeostasis whenever a variable moves away from its set point |
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Define Positive Feedback
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Amplification of an initial change
Example: When a baby is born, the contractions are cause by oxytocin and when the contraction pushes the baby onto the cervix, it triggers more oxytocin, triggering more contractions There is always a mechanism for termination of the cycle (like the child being born) A runaway positive feedback example would be heat stroke |
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Define Homeostasis
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body's ability to maintain a RELATIVELY stable internal environment (internal constancy)
This doesn't mean that there isn't constant change inside the body, it just means that it hovers around normal.. |
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Which type of feedback system is homeostatic?
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Negative feedback system
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Define the role a receptor/sensor plays in homeostatic feedback
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It detects deviations: from normal in the internal environment
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Describe what the integrator/control center does in homeostasis.
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Takes information from the sensor and compares it to the set point. If a difference is detected, the control center tells the effector to return the system to the set point.
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Describe what the effector does during homeostasis.
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The effector is the component of the control system commanded to bring about a desired effect.
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Components of a negative-feedback control system
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DEVIATION IN CONTROLLED VARIABLE
detected by SENSOR informs INTEGRATOR/CONTROL CENTER sends instructions to EFFECTOR(S) brings about COMPENSATORY RESPONSE results in CONTROLLED VARIABLE RESTORED TO NORMAL |
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Describe basic cell structure.
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3 major subdivisions:
plasma membrane nucleus cytoplasm |
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Describe the plasma membrane
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encloses the cell, separates the cell's contents from its surroundings
thin membrane composed of mostly lipids and proteins physical barrier Its proteins selectively control movement of molecules between the ICF and the ECF (like gated walls of an ancient city) |
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Define ICF (intracellular fluid)
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fluid within a cell
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Define ECF (extracellular fluid)
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fluid found outside a cell
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Define Nucleus
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Typically the largest single cell component
surrounded by nuclear envelope pierced by nuclear pores control center of the cell contains DNA |
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Define DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
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genetic material that:
1) Directs protein synthesis 2) Serves as genetic blueprint during cell replication |
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Define Cytoplasm
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The portion of the cell that is not occupied by the nucleus.
Contains: 1) Cytosol - ICF (semi-liquid, gel-like mass) 2) Cytoskeleton |
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Define Cytoskeleton
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interconnected system of protein fibers and tubes extends throughout the cytosol (ICF)
Gives cell shape, framework, and regulates various movements (microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments) |
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Define Organelles
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Integrated structures suspended in the ICF.
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Describe the function of Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Series of membranes that contain protein and lipid manufacturing factories (contains ribosomes)
Very elaborate fluid-filled membranous system distributed throughout the cytosol PROTEIN AND LIPID MANUFACTURE 2 types: Smooth ER and Rough ER (rough contains ribosomes) |
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What is the function of the ribosomes?
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Ribosomes produce proteins.
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Describe the function of the Golgi Apparatus.
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Raw proteins are processed, sorted, packaged, and directed to proper destination. (UPS Store)
Closely associated with ER Consists of a stack of flattened, slightly curved, membrane-enclosed sacs called cisternae Number of golgi complexes per cell varies with cell type |
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Describe the basic function of the Lysosomes
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contain powerful enzymes that break down organic molecules, they vary in size and shape depending of what they are digesting
Average cell contains about 300 lysosomes They digest extracellular material brought into the cell they remove worn out organelles RECYCLER |
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Define Autophagy
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engulfing other organelles--normal process required for turnover of old organelles and for terminating the function of certain organelles
Suicide bags A process where the lysosome breaks down old organelles to create energy for cell growth. Helps maintain cell homeostasis |
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Define Apoptosis
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Programmed Cell Death (PCD)
Intentional body process equivalent to necrosis but in necrosis, the process is UNintentional |
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Describe Tay-Sachs Disease
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AKA TSD (or GM2 gangliosidosis)
Lysosomal storage disease -- fat buildup around nerve cells 1 out of 40 lysomal enzymes is missing lack of one that breaks dowen lipids causes accumulation of lipids Autosomal recessive genetic disorder resulting in degradation of nerve ending in the brain leading to death. |
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Describe the function of peroxisomes
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House oxidative enzymes that degrade toxic waste produced with cells or toxins that enter the cell (like alcohol)
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Describe the function of Mitochondria
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POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL
Extracts energy from food nutrients and transforms it into usable form for cellular activities (ATP) The number found in a cell varys widely depending on how much energy a cell needs Most abundant in muscular tissue Synthesis of new chemical compounds, membrane transport, mechanical work |
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Describe the function of Ribosomes
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make protein by translating RNA into chains of amino acids in a sequence dictated by the DNA
They can exist freely in the cytosol or attached to the ROUGH ER |
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Describe the function of Vaults
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Discovered in the 1990s
MAY serve as a cellular transport vehicle MAY play undesirable role in multidrug resistance displayed by some cancer cells |
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General functions of the plasma membrane
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Physical Isolation
Determines cell's composition by being selectively permeable Structural purposes - participates in joining of cells to form tissues and organs Plays a key role in enabling the cell to respond to changes in the cell's environment |
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Describe the structure of the plasma membrane
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Fluid phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins
Phospholipids have a polar head and two non-polar fatty acid tails The head is hydrophillic (it likes water) and the tail is hydrophobic (it hates water) Cholesterol is tucked between the layers, contributing to fluidity and stability All cells need cholesterol in their membrane for stability (trillions in the body) |
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Describe the role membrane carbohydrates play in the plasma membrane
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Small amount located only on the ECF side of the plasma membrane.
Glycoproteins and glycolipids Attached to or inserted in the lipid bilayer Peripheral - attached loosely to other proteins on the lipid bilayer to to the lipid bilayer itself Integral - tightly bound into the phospholipid bilayer |
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Define Transmembrane
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penetrating all the way through the lipid bilayer, from one side to the other
refers to integral proteins that extend all the way through the plasma membrane |
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Define Microvilli
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Found in epithelial cells
microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area of cells, and are involved in a wide variety of functions, including absorption, secretion, cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction. |
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Define Cilia
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Cilia are tail-like projections.
There are two types of cilia: motile cilia and non-motile, or primary, cilia, which typically serve as sensory organelles. |
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Define Flagella
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Tail-like projection that protrudes from the cell body and provides locomotion.
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Define Channels as they relate to the plasma membrane
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They create a channel for water soluble ions to move through the plasma membrane without touching the hydrophobic interior of the plasma membrane.
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Define Channels as they relate to the plasma membrane
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They create a channel for water soluble ions to move through the plasma membrane without touching the hydrophobic interior of the plasma membrane.
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Describe how channels control what enters the cell.
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--May be specific for 1 ion
--May allow ions of similar size & charge to pass --May be open or gated |
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Discuss how membrane proteins can serve as carriers or transporters
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They transfer specific substances across the membrane that wouldn't be able to cross on their own.
They may bind with a specific molecule and carry it across the membrane by changing shape They never form a continuous passageway across the plasma membrane they only open one side or the other |
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Membrane proteins as docking-marker acceptors
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On the inner membrane surface, act as lock and key binding with secretory vesicles (exocytosis)
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Define Exocytosis
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The process where secretory vesicles force contents of the cell out through the cell membrane
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Membrane-bound enzymes (membrane proteins)
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Found on the inner or outer surface of the plasma membrane, these membrane proteins control reactions
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Discuss the function of the membrane proteins called receptors
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Found on the outside of the plasma membrane, these membrane proteins bind with specific molecules in the environment of the cell (such as hormones)
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Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
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Forms hooks and loops on the outside of the cell in order to link the cell to other cells (both structurally and functionally)
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Glycoproteins on the surface of the plasma membrane are important so the cell can recognize this
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SELF
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Define active transport and give an example
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requires energy (ATP) to transport a substance across
Example: when sodium is transported out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the sodium-potassium pump |
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Define passive transport
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does not require energy to pass through the membrane
uses only the energy of molecular movement |
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factors deciding whether or not a particle can move through unassisted
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1. particle size
2. lipid-solubility (more soluble in lipids, the higher chance it can move through unassisted) |
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2 types of unassisted transport
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Diffusion and osmosis
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Diffusion
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attempting to reach a dynamic equillibrium
there is a uniform spreading out of molecules due to their random intermingling move from high to low concentration crucial for cell survival (O2 and CO2 exchange, also kidney tubules) |
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Osmosis
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Diffusion of water
movement of water down its concentration gradient water moves by osmosis to the area of higher solute concentration as the solute concentration goes up, the water concentration goes down stopped by osmotic pressure |
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osmotic pressure
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stops osmosis
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osmolarity
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measure of a solutions total concentration
average body's osmolarity = 300 millosmole/liter |
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The rate of diffusion is affected by
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1. surface area of the membrane
2. magnitude (steepness) of the concentration gradient 3. molecular size and weight 4. temperature (warmer is faster) 5. thickness of the cell membrane 6. lipid solubility of the substance 7. permeability 8. electrical forces (opposites attract, net attraction determined by the electrical gradient) |
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What is tonicity?
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Determines whether cell remains same size, swells, or shrinks when a solution surrounds the cell
reflects the solution's content of nonpenetrating solutes vs the concentration of the cell's nonpenetrating solutes typically refers to the ECF |
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Define Isotonic
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the concentration of nonpenetrating solutes in the ECF and ICF are the same
Cell size/shape remain the same |
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Define Hypertonic
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the solution (ECF) is MORE concentrated than the ICF
creates a net movement of water OUT of the cell (the cell crenates or shrinks) |
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Define Hypotonic
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the solution (ECF) is LESS concentrated than the ICF
creates a net movement of water into the cell the cell can rupture or lyse |
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resting membrane potential charges
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exterior - positive
interior - negative |
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During depolarization which gate opens first? second?
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Na+ gates open before K+ gates open
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Depolarization occurs because
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more Na+ diffuses into the cell that K+ diffuses out
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The resting membrane potential is established using this
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sodium potassium pump
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The nerve impulse is an electrical current that travels along these
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dendrites and axons
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The sodium potassium pump pumps
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sodium out and potassium in (NaO Kin)
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Energy source for potassium-sodium pump
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breakdown of ATP
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Number of Na and K bound and moved by each sodium-potassium pump
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3 Na+ and 2 K+
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The sodium-potassium pump is a _________ protein.
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trans-membrane
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the binding and release of sodium ions are due to this
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conformational changes in the protein
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primary neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction
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acetylcholine
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Order in which pre-synaptic side of neuromuscular junction events occur
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Action potential arrives at the presynaptic terminal
calcium ions are released neurotransmitter is released |
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Order in which post-synaptic side of neuromuscular junction events occur
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Na+ ions move into the muscle cell
Depolarization of the post-synaptic membrane occurs Action potential is propagated over the muscle cell membrane |
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synaptic cleft
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the area between the pre-synaptic nerve cell and the post-synaptic muscle cell
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facilitated diffusion
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PASSIVE but mediated by carrier proteins
requires no additional energy example: gluc transporters in membrane |
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simple diffusion
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high conc to low conc (no carrier, no energy needed)
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carrier mediated transport description
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large, poorly lipid-soluble molecules, such as proteins and glucose cannot cross the plasma membrane unassisted, they need the aid of a carrier protein
spans the thickness of the plasma membrane, binds to specific substances and transports them by changing shape |
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carrier mediated transport (3 properties)
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1. specificity - carries only a certain molecule or a group of closely related molecules, carries something that's the shape or specificity
2. competition - groups compete for a binding site, carbon monoxide can compete for oxygen binding sites and breathing ceases 3. Saturation - there's a certain number of carriers and it can peak and not carry any more |
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carrier mediated transport (2 forms)
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facilitated diffusion
active transport |
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active transport
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requires energy (ATP) and moves a substance against its concentration gradient
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primary active transport
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energy required to vary the affinity of the binding site when it is exposed to opposite sides of the plasma membrane
the carrier splits ATP to power the transport process |
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secondary active transport
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transfer of solute is coupled with transfer of ion that supplies the driving force
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what does the ligand do?
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it binds to the carrier receptor(protein)
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3 Na+ ions
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leave the cell and enter the ECF
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2 K+ ions
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leave the ECF and enter the cell
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Maintains a higher intracellular concentration of this molecule than in the ECF
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K+
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Maintains a lower intracellular concentraion of this molecule than in the ECF
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Na+
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Transmembrane potential during primary active transport
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inside of cell has a slight negative charge as compared to the outside of the cell
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what type of transport is the NaK pump?
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Active
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discuss vesicular transport
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aka BULK transport
it moves macromolecules that are too large to move through the channels or carriers, such as protein hormones and bacteria ingested by the WBCs moves materials in vesicles formed at or fused to the cell membrane requires energy |
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endocytosis
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a form of vesicular transport
the movement of extracellular material into the cytoplasm receptor-mediated: selective, produces vesicles for specific targets |
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pinocytosis
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cell drinking
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phagocytosis
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cell eating
engulfs large particles lysosomal enzymes digest bacteria |
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exocytosis
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movement of intracellular material into the ECF
vesicle created inside the cell fuses with cell membrane, then opens up and releases its contents to the exterior provides a mechanism for secreting large polar molecules such as hormones and enzymes enables cell to add specific components to membrane such as carriers, channels, or receptors depending on the needs of the cell |
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rate of endo/exocytosis
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must be kept in balance to maintain constant membrane surface area and cell volume
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membrane contains leak channels for this ion
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K+ (Potassium)
There is no Na+ leak channel. |
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CNS (central nervous system)
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brain and spinal cord
integration center (thinking/reasoning) |
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PNS (peripheral nervous system)
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includes all the nerves outside the CNS, it includes the cranial and spinal nerves
affects the change divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous system |
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somatic nervous system
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voluntary
includes neurons that transmit info to and from skeletal muscles |
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autonomic nervous system
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involuntary
includes neurons that transmit info to and from smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands divided into: sympathetic and parasympathetic |
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sympathetic division of the ANS
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flight or flight
emergency response |
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parasympathetic division
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rest and digest
calms the system down |
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enteric nervous system
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brain of the gut
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2 types of cells that make up the nervous system
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Neurons and Neuroglia
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3 types of neurons
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afferent
interneurons efferent |
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afferent neurons
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sensory
carry sensory information from the sensory receptor to the CNS |
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sensory receptor location
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found at the end of afferent neurons; sensitive to stimuli
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interneurons
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association and integration
occur within the CNS analyze the information (integration) |
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efferent (motor) neurons
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carry information away from the CNS to an effector cell (muscle, gland or nerve)
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3 types of cells that respond to neurons
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muscle (contract)
gland (secrete substances) other nerve cells (respond by generating other impulses of their own that may then be passed on to some other target cell |
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myelin-forming glial cells
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Oligodendrocytes
schwann cells |
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oligodendrocytes
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found only in the CNS
Has processes so each one can myelinate parts of several axons each one forms myelin around portions of several axons |
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schwanns cells
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only found in the PNS
Each one wraps about 1mm of a single axon's length one axon may have as many as 500 Schwann cells, each wrapped around an insulated area |
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structure of a neuron
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Cell body
dendrite axon |
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neuron cell body
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contains a nucleus
nutritional center where macromolecules are produced nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm and typical organelles as well as some specialized ones |
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Dendrite
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highly branched unmyelinated processes
RECEIVING or input portion of neuron # per neuron varies from 1 to hundreds receives information from other neurons in the form of neurotransmitters |
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Axons
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only one axon per neuron
transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body features: joins the cell body at the AXON HILLOCK first portion called 'initial segment' junction between the two is called the trigger zone, it's where the nerve impulses are initiated synaptic end bulbs/terminals contain mitochondria and vesicles storing neurotransmitters membrane called axolemma |
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myelin
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lipid rich sheath that covers some axons at regular intervals and acts as an insulator
ions responsible for carrying current across the membrane cannot permeate this thick barrier |
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internodes
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part ox axons that are wrapped in myelin
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nodes of ranvier
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unmyelinated gap
only place on the axons where ions can flow across the membrane and produce an action potential |
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potential
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the separation of positive and negative charge (measured in volts)
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resting membrane potential
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-70mV
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depolarization
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rapid change in potential toward 0 or +
caused by influx of Na+ |
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repolarization
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membrane potential rapidly becomes negative sending the cell back toward its resting potential
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hyperpolarization
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if K+ channels haven't fully closed, the K+ continues to leave the cell causing the cell to hyperpolarize
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The inside of the cell is more negative than its surrounding because
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because K+ is constantly leaking, which give it a negative charge
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graded potential
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incoming signals
act to stimulate the dendrite to a point of threshold causing an action potential |
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action potential being here
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dendrite
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where does the action potential go?
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it travels away from the cell body/dendrite, along the axon, toward the axon terminal
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soma
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where the action potential originates
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contiguous propagation
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there is no myelination
voltage-gated channels SLOW |
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saltatory propagation
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myelinated axons
voltage-gated channels at nodes of ranvier FAST node to node |
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hyperkalemia
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too much K+ brings threshold down, easier to fire
depolarized |
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hypokalemia
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hyperpolarized
too little K+ take the threshold up making it less likely to fire an impulse |
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2 factors that speed up the nerve impulse
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diameter (larger)
myelnation (myelinated, less resistance) |
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refractory period
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absolute - no firing
relative - can fire with a lot of stimulus |
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events at the synaptic junction
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action potential triggers Ca+ release
Ca+ causes exocytosis of neurotransmitters they spill into the synaptic cleft and diffuse across the gap and bind with receptor sites |
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Ca+ triggers this
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exocytosis
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How can the action of a neurotransmitter be terminate?
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Diffusion
Enzymatic Degradation Astrocytes remove it reuptake |
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Ach
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excitatory for everywhere except heart which it hyperpolarizes
diseases that block Ach lead to muscle weakness and death BOTOX |
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What decides the effect of a neurotransmitter?
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The receptor
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GABA
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inhibitory - hyperpolarizes
most common in brain inhibits muscle spasms tetanus inhibits the release of GABA causing things like lockjaw coffee decreases GABA |
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Norepinephrine
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Brain and ANS
aka noradrenaline reinforces sympathetic activity (fight or flight) causes mental arousal |
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dopamine
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lack of dopamine can lead to parkinsons
behavior and reward motor control (allows muscle to detract) |
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serotonin
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mimicked by LSD
CNS helps with emotions and happiness |
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G Proteins
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SECOND MESSENGER SYSTEM
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neurotransmitter found at all neuromuscular junctions
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ach
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action of ach
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produces a depolarization everywhere except heart where it produces hyperpolarization
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stops ach
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acetylcholinesterase
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how do local anesthetics block pain
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they block the conduction of action potentials in the sensory axons
blocks Na+ channels to reduce the ability of the cell to depolarize |
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MS
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myelin breakdown and scaring on nervous tissue
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Tourette's syndrome
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more powerful dopamine receptors in brain
the body always wants to do weird stuff but the dopamine provides the password for the movement to occur |
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Myasthenia Gravis
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the body fails to recognize its own Ach receptors and attacks them
muscular weakness because the muscles withdraw their receptors |
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memory
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storage of acquired knowledge for later recall
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consolidation
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short term becomes long term
hippocampus creates the memory and the amygdala converts it to long term |
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Amnesia
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lack of memory involving whole portions of time
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retrograde amnesia
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inability to recall past events
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anterograde amnesia
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inability to store any new memories, but remembers old stuff
50 first dates |
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does sleep mean a reduction in neural activity?
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NO
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sleep deprivation does not cause health problems?
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false, releases stress hormones leading to obesity and high BP
decreases immune function, irritability, moodiness, memory loss |
