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113 Cards in this Set
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- 3rd side (hint)
What is Arterial blood pH? |
7.4 pH range is 1 to 14 |
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Formula for pH |
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What is Acidosis? Define |
A pH below 7.4 |
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What is Alkalosis? |
A pH above 7.4 |
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What does a high concentration of H* ions cause? |
Acidosis |
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What does a low concentration of H* ions cause? |
Alkalosis |
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What are the 3 defense systems in pH |
Buffer systems, respiratory center, and kidneys |
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What are the 3 buffer systems? |
Bicarbonate ( HCO3) Phosphate Protein |
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Why is the Bicarbonate buffet system the most important? |
Its 2 components can be regulated by the body; CO2 by the respiratory system and bicarbonate by the kidneys. So pH can be regulated up ir down as needed |
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Where is the phosphate buffer system most beneficial? |
In the tubular fluids of the kidneys |
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Why is the protein buffer system the most powerful? |
Protein is in such high concentration in the body; because CO2, H+, bicarbonate can diffuse quickly for pH changes. pH change inside cell are reflected in extracellular fluid. |
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What is the H+ effect on pulmonary ventilation? |
It has a direct effect on the respiratory center in the medulla, and effects the rate of ventilation |
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When can't the respiratory system return pH to normal, |
When an abnormality outside the respiratory system is the cause for the change in pH. Because the stimulus triggering the increase or decrease in respiration will be lost. |
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H+ is considered a_? Bicarbonate is a _? |
H+ is an acid. Bicarbonate is a base |
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How do the Kidneys help regulate h+ concentration? |
If extracellular fluid us too acidic, it excretes acidic urine; If the extracellular fluid is alkalinic, it extretes an alkaline urine |
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The Glomerular filtrates what? |
It continuously filters large amounts of bicarbonate from the blood, (removing the base). If h+ isnt also secreted out, the pH drops because h+ concentration increases |
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What is secreted into the renal tubular lumens |
Large amounts of H+ ions, removing it from extracellular fluid, if needed. If bicarbonate isn't removed, it causes Metabolic Alkalosis |
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Respiratory acidosis |
Frequently caused by a pathological condition. Ex. of causes: pneumonia (co2 can't easily leave), respiratory obstruction, damage to respiratory center, deceased pulmonary membrane area, any structure change can cause acidosis |
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Causes of respiratory alkalosis? |
Physiological- Living at sea level and traveling to an area with high elevation. Air has less O2, triggers carotid/aorta bodies to increase breathing, too much Co2 is expelled. Psychoneurosis (hyperventilation) causes over breathing. |
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Metabolic acidosis/alkalosis |
Refers to all other abnormalities of acid-bace balance besides those caused by excessive or insufficient Co2 |
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Causes of metabolic acidosis |
Diarrhea losing large amounts of bicarbonate. Vomiting from deep in the gi tract, below the stomach. Failure of kidneys to remove acid, causing uremia. Diabetes lack if insulin prevents normal use if glucose |
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Metabolic alkalosis caused by |
Administration of diuretic or alkaline drugs. Loss of Cl ions with excessive vomiting of stomach contents. Excessive aldosterone |
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Exocrine glands secret into where |
Into duct, like sebaceous glans |
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Endocrine glands excrete where |
Hormones into interstitial fluid to targeted organs |
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What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary? 6 |
Growth hormone, Adrenocorticotropin, Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), Prolactin |
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What does growth hormone do |
Causes growth of almost all cells and tissue in the body |
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Adrenocorticotropin does what? |
Causes the adrenal cortex to secret adrenalcortical hormones. |
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Thyroid stimulating hormone does what? |
Causes the thyroid gland to secret thyroxine and triiodothyronin. |
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Follical stimulating hormone does what |
Causes the growth of the follicles in the ovaries prior to ovulation & promotes the formation of sperm in the testies. |
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Luteinizing hormone ( LH) does what |
Plays an important role in causing ovulation; secretion of female sex hormones by ovaries and testosterone by the testies |
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Prolactin does what |
Promotes the development of the breast and section if milk |
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Hormones of the posterior pituitary? 2 |
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), Oxytocin. |
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Antidiuretic hormone does what |
Aka vassopressin. Causes the kidneys to retain h2o, causing increase in h2o the body. In high concentration it causes construction of the blood vessels through the body, increasing arterial bp |
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Oxytocin does what |
Contracts uterus during the birthing process. Also contracts the myoepithelial cells in the breast to express milk while the baby suckles |
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Adrenal glands? |
Adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex |
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Adrenal medulla function and its Hormones |
Function to stimulate the sympathetic nervous system. Secretes hormones in response to stimulation. Epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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Norepinephrine causes? |
Vassoconstriction of essentially all vessels in the body and inhibits the gi tract(stops parastolic movement). Some increase in heart activity |
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Epinephrine causes |
Increased heart activity, increased force contractions, increased hr= increase cardiac output. Greater effect on the heart than norepi |
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Hormones of adrenal cortex |
Glucocorticoids (primary Cortisol ) & mineralcorticoids (primary Aldosterone). Minimal sex hormones |
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Cortisol function |
Multiple metabolic functions for control of metabolism of carbs, fats, & proteins.
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Mineralcorticoids, primary is Aldosterone cause |
Reduces or increases sodium (Na) extretion by kidneys, can result in increased Na in body and decreasing the amount of K in the body. |
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Tyroxine( T4) & triiodothyronine cause (T3) |
Increases the general overall level of the body metabolism, mostly in growing kids. |
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Hormones from Islets of Langethans of the pancreas |
Insulin and glucagon |
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Insulin does |
Secreted by Beta cells from islets of Langethans. Promotes entry of glucose into most cells, and therby controls rate of metabolism of most carbs |
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Glucagon does |
Secreted by Alpha cells when blood glucose is too low. Increases the level of glucose from the liver into the circulating body fluids |
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Hormones of the ovaries |
Estrogens and progesterone, secreted in response to FSH and LH from anterior pituitary |
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Estrogens function at puberty? |
Stimulate the development of female sex organs, breast, & various secondary sex characteristics |
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Progesterone function? |
Helps prepare the endometrium of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized ovum & prepares mammary glands for milk secretions |
Produces |
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Testosterone from testies at puberty? |
Stimulates the growth of male sex organs, promotes growth of secondary male sex characteristics, important in sex drive |
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Parathyroid hormone controls |
Important in Ca & phosphate metabolism, secreted by chief cells. Calcium concintraion in extracellular fluid by 3 mechanisms. Absorption of CA in gi tract, Excretion of CA by kidneys (primary), Release of Ca from bones( secondary). |
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Hormones of the placenta? 4 |
Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hcg) Estrogen, Progesterone, Human somatommamotropin. All needed for normal pregnancy |
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Human chorionic gonadotrophin? |
Promotes growth in the corpus luteum & its secretion of estrogen & progesterone. Regulates estrogen & progesterone. Slight stimulating effect on testosterone in males. |
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Estrogen in pregnancy promotes |
Growth of the mothers sex organs & some tissue if the fetus |
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Progesterone in pregnancy |
Probably promotes development of some fetal tissue & organs, helps promote the development of secretory apparatus in the mothers breast |
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Human somatommamotropin in pregnancy |
Probably promotes growth with some fetal tissue as well as the development of the mothers breast |
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Hormone of the pineal gland |
Melatonin. Located inferior and aterior to the thalamus |
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Melatonin does |
Secretion varies in relationship to light level from environment. Less light = more melatonin, and visevera. Increased blood levels cause drowsiness |
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Posterior pituitary aka? |
Neural pituitary, made up of neural tissue of neurosecretory cells. 25% of pituitary |
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Pituitary is regulated by? |
The hypothalamus |
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How is cortisol stimulated? |
Excitation of Hypothalamus to different types if stress can cause immediate release of cortisol. Trauma, infection, intense temps, injection of epi, surgery, debilitating disease. |
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What happens without mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)? |
K concentration in extracellular fluid increases rapidly. Sodium & chloride decrease. Extracellular fluid volume reduced, reduces venous return, reducing cardiac output, leading to death. Considered life saving portion of adrenal cortex |
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Factors that regulate Aldosterone secretion? 3 |
Increased k in extracellular fluid. Increased angiotensin 2. Decreased extracellular sodium. |
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What happens in men with too much or too little thyroid hormones? |
Too little causes a loss of lobedo. Too much causes impotence. |
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What happens to women with too little thyroid hormones? |
Causes excessive/frequent menses, irregular menses and amenorrhea |
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What are the most common symptoms of increased thyroid hormones? |
(Metabolism of carbs and fat.) Tachycardia. If really high, there's decreased force of contractions of the heart |
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What is the most potent factor in controlling glucagon secretions? |
Blood glucose levels. If glucose is too low, glucagon increases If glucose is too high, glucagon decreases. |
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What happens of insulin levels after abrupt increase in blood glucose? |
2 stages: 1: stores in beta cells are dumped. 2: insulin production starts and theres a rise if levels. |
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What causes diabetes mellitus? |
Prolonged secretion of these hormones in large amounts can exhaust beta cells in islets of Langerhans. |
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Type 1 DM results from |
Diminishes secretions of insulin by beta cells. Most common in young |
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Type 2 dm caused by |
Lack of insulin and /or the bodies ability to use insulin efficiently. |
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Female reproductive years marked by? |
Monthly rhythmic cycle of estrogen and progesterone, usually 28days |
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Function of estrogen at puberty? |
20x rapid increase in reproductive yes. Changes sex organs to adult. Changes vaginal epithelium from cuboidal to stratified squamous ( protection). Breast and milk apparatus development. Closes epiphysis in long bones. Proliferation & growth of specific cells |
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Loss of estrogen in menopause causes |
Loss vaginal secrets, hot flashes, irritable, fatigue, psychic sensation of dyspnea, anxiety |
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Progesterone function in adult female? |
Prepares the uterus for fertilized ovum in last 1/2 of menstrual cycle. Decreases frequency of uterine contractions. Also prepared breast tissue to secret milk |
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What causes rapid increase of testosterone? |
Stimulation of gonatotripic hormones from anterior pituitary FSH & LH. |
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What is the role of vitamin D? |
It favors the increase of Ca and phosphate absorption in GI tract. |
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Where is sperm produced? |
In the seminiferous tubules. |
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Which cells in the testicles products testosterone? |
Leydig cells |
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Spermatogenic |
Sperm forming cells |
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Production on sperm is called |
Spermatogenesis |
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Sertoli cells |
Support and protect developing sperm |
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What are the 3 parts of sperm and what do they do |
1. Head contains chromosomes. 2. Acrosome facilitate ovum penetration by sperm. 3. Tail containers ATP and mitochondria |
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Testosterone production increases rapidly under what stimulation? |
Gonadotropic hormones from anterior pituitary (FSH promotes sperm production & LH promotes the secretion if testosterone |
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After puberty male sex organs? |
Increase conciberably before age 30 |
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What happens in the epididymis? |
Sperm maturation. Sperm acquires motility & ability to fertilize an ovum |
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Fluid produced in the seminal vesicles |
Alkaline viscus fluid makes up 60‰ of semen volume. Important to neutralize female reproductive tract. Provides energy and motility to sperm |
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Fluid secreted by the prostate |
Makes up 25% of semen volume, slightly acidic, helps with viability and motility. Has citric acid for ATP production. Proteolytic enzymes to break down clotting of seminal vesicles. And seminal plasma acts as abx |
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During sexual stimulation the bulbourethral grand secrets? |
An alkaline fluid into the spongy urethra that protects sperm from acid. Also mucus that lines the urethra to prevent sperm damage while passing. Secretes to penile head at sexual arousal. |
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What are the 3 structures of the penis shaft? |
2 Corpus Cavernosum that are important in erections. 1 Corpus Spongiosum that surrounds the urethra. All surrounded in a fiber sheet. |
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Erection produced how? |
Parasympathetic impulses pass from sacral spinal cord thru the Nervi Erigentes to the penis. Arteries dilate, increased blood in cavernousum. |
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During sex, what structures secret mucus in males? |
Parasympathetic stimulation causes urethral & bulbourethral glands to secrete mucus |
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What maintains a flaccid penis |
Sympathetic contractile nerve impulses. |
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What maintains an erect penis? |
Parasympathetic factors induce smooth muscle relaxation and erection |
Needs to be hard for penetration |
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What brings on emission and ejaculation? |
Stimulation gets intense, reflex center of spinal cord emit sympathetic impulses out thru spinal cord at L1 &L2 to genitals thru hypogastric & pelvic plexuses to initiate emission( start of ejaculation) |
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Route of ejaculation |
Powerful release of semen from the urethra to the exterior is a sympathetic reflex coordinated by lumbar spinal cord. |
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What is meiosis |
Cell division occurs during production of gamates involving 2 successive nuclear division leaving 2 haploid cells |
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What happens to the Primary Oocyte |
It splits into 2 haploid cells of unequal sizes. 1 secondary oocyte that's larger, & the other first polar body is smaller. |
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What is a zygote? |
When the nuclei of sperm and about ovum unite into diploid cell |
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What is an Oocyte? |
Female sex cell (gamate) haploid |
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What is oogenesis? |
Formation & development of oocyte. |
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What hormones stimulate milk production? |
Prolactin (anterior pituitary), progesterone, estrogen. |
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What is the function of breast/mammory glands |
Make, secrets, and ejects milk |
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What female gland secrets mucous during sex? |
Bartholin gland (greater vesibular gland), after parasympathetic impulses pass through |
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Female erectile tissue |
Parasympathetic nerves pass tru sacral plexus thru nervi erigentes in external genitals to engorge the bulb of vestibule with blood, tightens vagina, also clitoris. |
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Ovaries secret? |
Estrogen & testosterone in response to FSH and LH. |
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Female reproductive cycle |
Monthly change of various hormones & organs over 28 days |
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FSH & LH stimulate ovarian target cells to? |
6-12 Follicles to grow and mature for ovulation, with 1 outgrowing the others to be released |
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Ovulation is dependent on? |
Initial surge of Leutinizing hormone LH |
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Estrogen at puberty |
Increases 20x under FSH & LH, change in female sex organs |
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What is the estrogen effect on the Fallopian tubes? |
Increased # of cillia epithelia & activity increase to favor movement of ovum from fimriae into uterus |
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What is the female sexual act dependent on? |
Both psychic stimulation & local stimulation |
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Female erogenous areas? |
Nipples, labia minora, clit, g spot |
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Stages of female sexual response cycle? |
Desire ( psychology, pheramon, testosterone.) Arousal (increased blood flow, nipples tighten, lubricant, organs swell). Plateau ( maintain state, increased sensitive, vaginal walls swell) Orgasm ( intense pleasure, muscle contracts, uterus twist, vagina lengthens) Resolution |
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