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170 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Homeostasis
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the body's ability to maintain a relatively constant environment
-body uses control loops to maintain variables such as body temp, blood glucose levels, blood pressure, CO2 levels, pH etc |
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Negative Feedback Loop
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accounts for over 99% of loops
-the effector causes the variable to return back to set point |
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Hormonal Regulatory System
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causes a slow response in the body
-hormones must travel through the bloodstream to reach target cells -long lasting effects- hormones stay in blood for a certain period of time continuously causing an effect on the target -controlled by negative feedback systems |
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2nd messenger system
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-activate a protein kinase inside the target cell that changes the activity of that cell's proteins (turns it on and off)
-used for polar hormones *polar hormone binds to extracellular portion of receptor which activates a G-protein in the cytoplasm *G-protein then activates an enzyme that produces second messengers (cAMP, DAG & IP3) |
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Name the second messenger molecules
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cAMP
DAG IP3 |
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Hypothalamus
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located in the brain
-secretes hormones that control secretion of hormones for pituitary gland which in turn controls the secretion of hormones from the thyroid gland, adrenal glands and gonads -composed of neurons |
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Pituitary Gland
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located in the brain, inferior to hypothalamus
-divided into 2 halves *Anterior (adenohypophysis) composed of epithelial (glandular) tissue *Posterior (neurohypophysis) composed of axons & axon termini whose cell bodies and dendrites are located in the hypothalamus |
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Thyroid Follicles
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thyroid gland consists of thousands of follicles
-bordered by follicular cells filled with colloid -secrete thyroid hormones T4 (thyroxine) and T3 **increase metabolic rate by increasing cell respiration |
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Parafollicular cells
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cells found between follicles in the thyroid gland
-secrete the hormone calcitonin (which decreases calcium absorption and reabsorption) |
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Steroid Hormones
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Nonpolar hormones
-synthesized from cholesterol *change the rate of mRNA transcription in target cell (determines rate of cellular processes) |
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Pertioneum
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2 membranes of the abdominal cavity
-protect organs from damage *Visceral peritoneum (serosa) -covers external surface of digestive organs *Parietal peritoneum -lines the internal wall of the abdominal cavity peritoneal fluid fills space between |
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Rugae
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the folds of the stomach at the luminal surface
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gastic pits
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folds of the gastric mucosa
-secrete gastric juice into lumen and hormones into blood |
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Chief Cells (Zymogenic cells)
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located in the mucosa of the stomach
-secrete pepsinogen (an inactive zymogen) which chemically digests proteins once converted to pepsin (active) -secrete gastric lipase which digests lipids |
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Parietal cells
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located in the mucosa of the stomach
-secrete HCl to lower pH (optimal for digestion) |
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Mucous cells
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located in the mucosa of the stomach
-secrete mucus to protect mucosa from HCl and pepsin |
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Pyloric valve
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located at the connection between the stomach and the small intestine
-opens slightly with a strong peristaltic wave to allow a small amoutn of chyme to enter the duodenum of small intestine |
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Small intestine
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major site of chemical digestion via pancreatic and intestinal enzymes with the aid of bile
-site of absorption into circulatory and lymphatic system |
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Histology of Small Intestine
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Villi- fingerlike extensions of the mucosa and submucosa (simple columnar epithelium, blood vessels and lymph lacteals)
Microvilli (brush border) - tiny folds of the apical cell membrane of simple columnar epithelium |
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CCK
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secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the mucosa of the small intestine
-Causes the release of digestive enzymes and bile into the duodenum |
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Secretin
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secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the mucosa of the small intestine
- decreased the strength of peristaltic waves of the stomach to decrease gastric emptying |
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Salivary Amylase
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present in saliva
-begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates -high activity |
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Pancreatic juice
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produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum
-contains pancreatic amylase (digests carbs), pancreatic lipase (digests lipids) & pancreatic zymogens (digeset proteins) |
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Trypsinogen
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an inactive form of trypsin present in pancreatic juice
-converted to trypsin (active) by the brush-border enzyme enterokinase -trypsin then activates two other zymogens |
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Liver
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produces bile in the hepatocytes
-secretes bile into hepatic ducts -bile causes fat emulsification to increase rate of lipid hydrolysis |
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Gallbladder
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stores bile secreted from the liver when the sphincter of Oddi is closed
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Absorption
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polar molecules move into the blood vessels
nonpolar molecules move into the lymph lacteals |
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Functions of the Large Intestine
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any food that could not be chemically digested in the small intestine is moved into the large intestine
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RBC removal
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dead RBCs are trapped in the spleen.
they are then moved to the liver where they are expelled as bilirubin (a component of bile) |
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Gastrin
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secreted by G cells in the stomach in response to an increase in pH
-Stimulates the parietal cells to secrete additional HCl to return the pH to 2 |
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Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
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hormone that enhances insulin production
-a member of the secretin family of hormones -secreted by K cells in the small intestine |
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Lipogenesis
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triglyceride synthesis
-occurs when cellular ATP and glucose levels are high -when these two metabolites are present in excess they are channeled into triglyceride sysnthesis pathways |
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Lipolysis
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the breakdown of stored fats into glycerol and fatty acids
-occurs when there is a lack of carbohydrates |
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Deamination
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takes place in the liver
-the process by which amino acids are broken down -The amino group is removed from the amino acid and converted to ammonia. The rest of the amino acid is recycled or oxidized for energy. |
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Beta Oxidation
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the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate Acetyl-CoA, the entry molecule for the Krebs Cycle.
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Ketogenesis
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occurs as a result of the breakdown of stored fats (lipolysis).
-takes place in the liver -converts acetyl CoA molecules to ketone bodies to be used for cell energy |
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Transamination
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when amino acids transfer their amine group to an alpha ketogluteric acid to be used in the Krebs cycle
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Nares
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the nostrils
-allows air to enter the nasal cavities after passing through here |
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nasal cavities
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lie in and posterior to the external nose
-air enters these through the nares during breathing |
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Conchae
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3 scroll-like mucosa-covered projections
-superior, middle & inferior nasal conchae *filter, heat and moisten air being brought into the body |
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Sinuses
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cavities in the skull that lighten the skull
-warm and moisten air -produce mucus that flows into the nasal cavitiy to drain sinuses |
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Nasopharynx
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serves only as an air passageway
-during swallowing the uvula covers the opening to the nasopharynx to prevent food from entering the nasal cavity |
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Larynx
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voice box
3 functions: 1. to provide an open airway 2. to act as a switching mechanism to route air and food properly 3. voice production |
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Epiglottis
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composed of elastic cartilage, covered by a taste bud
-during swallowing, it tips down to cover the respitatory passages to prevent food from entering them |
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Glottis
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the opening between the vocal cords
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Trachea
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windpipe
tube that leads to the lungs -has C shaped catilaginous rings |
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Bronchi
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single division of the trachea which moves air into/out of the left and right lungs
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Bronchioles
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smallest branches of the conducting zone
-contains no cartilage -supported only by smooth muscle (responsible for bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation) |
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Alveoli
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terminus of the airways
-accounts for most of the surface area of the lungs -made of simple epithelium *Type I- squamous alveolar cells -allows for rapid gas exchange *Type II-cuboidal alveolar cells -secrete surfactand into alveolar lumen |
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Surfactant
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counteracts the surface tension of the lungs
-similar in chemistry to a detergent -prevents the formation of hydrogen bonds, decreasing surface tension -without it, the lungs would collapse |
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Pleural Membranes
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*Parietal Pleura
-lines the thoracic wall and the superior face of the diagphragm *Visceral Pleura -covers the external surface of the lungs Interplerual space filled with pleural fluid |
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Muscles of Quiet Ventilaton
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contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm only
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Muscles of Forced Inspiration
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-contraction of the diaphragm
-contraction of the external intercostal muscles |
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Muscles of Forced Expiration
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-relaxation of the diaphragm
-contraction of the internal intercostal muscles -contraction of the abdominal muscles |
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Lung Volumes
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4 Different Lung Volumes:
Tidal Volume: volume of air that moves into and out of the lungs with each breaht during quiet ventilation (500ml) Inspiratory Reserve Volume: additional volume of air that can be inspired forcibly into the lungs after tidal inspiration Expiratory Reserve Volume: additional volume of air that can be expired forcibly from the lungs after a tidal expiration Residual Volume: volume of air left in lungs after forced expiration **can never be expired |
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Hyperventilation
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increased rate and depth of ventilation that exceeds the body's need to remove CO2
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Apnea
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periods of breathing cessation that occur when there is an abnormally low level of CO2
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Dyspnea
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difficult or labored breathing that becomes progressively more severe
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Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
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the air that we inspire and expire has a pressure of 760 mmHG and is a mixture of 4 gases (N2, O2, H2O, and CO2)
*alveolar air has P-oxygen of 104mmHg and P-carbon dioxide of 40mmHg |
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Boyle's Law
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there is an inverse (opposite) relationship between pressure & volume of gas
*when one goes up, the other goes down *V x P = CONTSTANT |
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Inspiratory Center
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The dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
-located in the medulla -the pacesetter for respiration (sets a quiet ventilation rate of 12 breaths/minute) -spontaneously initiates action potentials every 5 seconds resulting in inspiration |
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Expiratory Center
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The ventral respiratory group (VRG)
-located in the medulla -group of neurons that fire ap's only during forced expiration -increase amount of aur that exits the lungs |
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Pneumotaxic Center
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Respiratory Center of the Pons
-sends ap's every 5 seconds to the DRG (inspiratory center) -ending inspiration -provides a smooth transition between inspiration and expiration |
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Apneustic
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when inspirations become very prolonged due to lesions (?)
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What occurs with an increase in P co2?
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this will stimulate the DRG (inspiratory) and result in an increase in respiration rate and depth
-hyperventilation |
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What occurs with a decrease in P co2?
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this will inhibit the DRG (inspiratory) and result in a decrease in respiration rate and depth
-hypoventilation |
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What happens when body pH increases?
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caused by breath holding (increase in P co2)
-excessive amounts of H+ increase pH -chemoreceptors stimulate the DRG (inspiratory) to increase ventilation rate and depth (hyperventilation) -CO2 is removed, pH goes down back to 7.4 |
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External Respiration
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occurs between the lumen of the alveoli and the blood
*blood that is flowing toward the lungs is low in O2 (Po2=40mmHg) and high is CO2 (Pco2=45mmHg) |
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Internal Respiration
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occurs between the blood and the cells of the body
*blood that is delivered to cells of the body is high is O2 (104mmHg) and low in CO2 (40mmHg) |
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How is Oxygen transported in the blood?
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-99% is bound to molecules of hemoglobin within RBCs
-1% is dissolved in the plasma -a single molecule of hemoglobin can carry up to 4 O2 *the # of O2 carried by hemoglobin is determined by Po2 of the blood, temp of blood, pH of blood and Pco2 of blood |
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How is Carbon Dioxide transported in the blood?
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-as bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) in the plasma (70%)
-as carbaminohemoglobin (bound to the amino acides of Hb) (10%) -dissolved gas in plasma (10%) |
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Function of Plasma
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to transport blood cells and to carry solutes such as proteins, electrolytes, o2 & co2
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What proteins does plasma contain?
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albumin
clotting factors antibodies |
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Antibodies of the ABO blood groups
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3 major antibodies that may be present in the plasma (anti-A, anti-B, anti-Rh)
Type A has anti-B antibodies in plasma Type B has anti-A antibodies in plasma Type AB has no antibodies Type O has both anti-A and anti-B Rh + does NOT have anti-Rh antibodies Rh - may or may not have anti-Rh antibodies in plasma |
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Agglutinogens
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the antigens present on the surface of RBCs that promote agglutination
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Agglutinins
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the antibodies present in the plasma
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Describe the steps of Hemostasis
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blood clotting
3 steps to stop bleeding: *vasoconstriction (due to vascuar spasms) *platelet plug formation (platelets becomes sticky, generate pseudopods to grab additional platelets) *coagulation by clotting factors III & VII (inactive enzymes in plasma that become active in response to damage) resulting in activation of fibrinogen to fibrin |
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What are platelets?
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cell fragments of a megakaryocyte that participate in hemostasis
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Erythropoiesis
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the formations of erythrocytes due to differentiation of hemocytoblasts in reb bone marrow
-# of circulating RBCs must remain constant -liver and kidneys secrete the hormone erythropoietin in response to low oxygen in blood, stimulating the differentiation of RBCs by hemocytoblasts |
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Hematocrit
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the percentage of blood volume that is RBCs
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Polycythemia
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overabundance of RBCs causing an increase in blood viscosity
-puts additional strain on the heart |
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Anemia
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not enough RBCs in the blood
-causes low oxygen content in the blood |
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Leukocytes (general)
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white blood cells
-make up 1% of blood volume -only formed element that can move in and out of the circulatory system -5 diff types (Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils) |
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Granulocytes
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Neutrophils, Basophils & Eosinophils
-contain visable cytoplasmic granules -have multilobed nuclei |
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Function of Leukocytes
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cellular component of the immune system that functions to protect the body from foreign substances such as pathogens and allergens
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Agranulocytes
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Lymphocytes & Monocytes
-lack visable cytoplasmic granules -have spherical or kidney shaped nuclei |
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Humoral Division of Acquired Immune System
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-antibody mediated division
-antibodies against a specific pathogen/allergen are secreted by B lymphocytes -B cells develop in red bone marrow -B cells transform into plasma cells and secrete antibodies against the pathogen -antibodies circulate and decrease ability for pathogen to spread by causing agglutination |
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Cellular Division of Acquired Immune System
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-cell mediated division
-T lymphocytes kill specific pathogens -T cells develop in the Thymus gland -T cell induces cells death by exocytosing perforin into pathogen -perforin creates holes in pathogen leading to death by lysis |
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Innate Immune System
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nonspecific
-always on -consists of intact skin and mucosa which prevent entry of pathogens -macrophages (type of monocyte) which phagocytose pathogens |
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regulatory T cells
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dampen the immune response to prevent autoimmune reactions
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cytotoxic T cells
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the only T cells that directly attack pathogens
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Lymph Nodes
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contain lymphocytes that attack antigens to prevent them from moving to other parts of the body
*this is where lymphocytes become activated as B or T cells after moving here from red bone marrow or the thymus gland |
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Pericardium
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double membrane that surrounds the heart
*parietal pericardium- fits loosley around the heart *visceral pericardium (epicardium)- thin superficial layer of the heart (outermost layer) pericardial cavity filled with pericardial fluid |
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Lubb
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First heart sound
-made when the AV valves close during ventricular systole |
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Dupp
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Second heart sound
-made when the semilunar valves close during ventricular diastole |
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SA node
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sinoatrial node located in the wall of the right atrium
-initiates ap's every 0.8 seconds determining the rhythm of the heart beath -frequency of ap's can be altered by the antagonistic branches of the ANS |
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AV node
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atroventricular node
-ap's move from SA node here -located between the right atrium and interventricular septum -only route for the spread of ap from the atria to the ventricles -slows the spread of the ap to ensure atria undergo diastole before the ventricles |
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Bundle of His
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located within the interventricular septum
-propagates the ap from the AV node through the interventricular septum to the apex of the heart |
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Purkinjie Fibers
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located within the interventricular septum and the walls of the right and left ventricles
-propagates the ap from the bundle branches to the ventricular working cardiac myocytes, causing ventricular systole |
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EKG waves
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P wave= depolarization of both atria
QRS complex= depolarization of both ventricles and repolarization of both atria T wave= repolarization of both ventricles |
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EKG segments
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P-Q segment= the time from the begining of atrial excitation to the begining of ventricular excitation
S-T segment= when ap is in its plateau phase the entire ventricular myocardium is depolarized |
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Heart Rate
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the number of heart beats per minute
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Bradycardia
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heart rate below 60 beats per minute
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Tachycardia
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heart rate above 100 beats per minute
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Cardioacceleratory Center
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sympathetic
-located in the medulla oblongata -increases heart rate and stroke volume -ap's originating here propagate along the sympathetic cardiac nerve, synapses with SA node -releases norepinephrine onto SA node -increases APs in SA node |
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Cardioinhibitory Center
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parasympathetic
-located in the medulla oblongata -decreases heart rate -ap's originating here propagate along the Vagus nerve, synapses with SA node -releases acetylcholine onto SA node -decreases APs in SA node |
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Tunics
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arteries and veins contain all three tunics (tunica media is much greater in arteries)
capillaries only contain tunica interna *Tunica Interna: single epithelium layer that lines lumen *Tunica Media: smooth muscle layer innervated by nerves to cause contraction/relaxation *Tunica Externa: connective tissue with many collagen fibers to reinforce vessels |
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Fenestration
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tiny pores in the tunica interna of capillaries that allow plasma and small solutes to pass through the walls of capillaries to allow exchange between capillaries and tissues
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coronary circulation
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blood supply to the heart
-shortest circulation in the body -provided by the right and left coronary arteries (arising from the aorta) |
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Venous return
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veins are surrounded by skeletal muscle which contract to move blood back to the heart
-one way valves located in veins prevent backflow of blood |
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Peripheral Vascular Resistance
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mainly altered by controlling the diameter of the arterioles
-PVR is increased by vasoconstriction, causing a decrease in blood flow -PVR is decreased by vasodilation which increases blood flow |
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Kidney Anatomy
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Renal cortex
Renal medulla- contains medullary pyramids Renal pelvis- consists of calyces which collect urine and direct urine to ureters |
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proximal tubule
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located in the cortex of the kidney
-part of the nephron -permeable to solutes and water due to presence of solute transporting proteins and aquaporins -65% of glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed here |
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Decending Loop of Henle
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located in the cortex and medulla
-permeable only to water due to presence of aquaporins -favors mvmt of water out of DLH -solute concentration of filtrate increases to 1200 mOsm -reabsorbs 15% of water from filtrate |
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Ascending Loop of Henle
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located in the medulla and cortex
-permeable only to solutes due to presence of solute transporting proteins -favors diffusion of solutes out of ALH -reabsorbs 25% solutes from filtrate |
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Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
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permeable to both solutes and water
-permeablity varies due to levels of certain hormones in circulation -favors diffusion of solutes and water out of these segments |
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Juxtaglomerular apparatus
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regulates the function of each nephron (blood flow and glomerular filtration rate)
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Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
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the rate at which plasma exits the glomerulus and enters the Bowman's capsule
-determines the rate of urine formation |
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Proximal Obligitory Reabsorption
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the body must reabsorb water in the proximal tubule due to the presence of aquaporins regardless of under or overhydration
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Distal Facultative Reabsorption
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depending on the body's needs water and or solutes will or will not be reabsorbed. this is dictated by the presence or absence of ADH
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Countercurrent Exchange Mechanism
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refers to the ascending and descending loop of henle and the way in which it regulates and maintains an osmotic gradient
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Urethral Sphincters
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*internal urethral sphincter- involuntary sphincter between bladder and urethra
*external urethral sphincter- voluntary sphincter surrounding urethra as it passes through the body wall |
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Micturition as controlled by the ANS
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urination reflexes are initiated by stretch receptors in the wall of the bladder when full which:
-stimulate the detrusor muscle to contract -inhibit the internal and external sphincters |
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the body's response to dehydration
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dehydration causes a decrease in blood pressure and an incerase in blood sodium concentration
-elevated Na+ stimulates chemoreceptors in the hypothalamus resulting in the secretion of ADH from posterior pituitary gland -ADH raises blood pressure by stimulating vasoconstriction of arteries -ADH decreases Na+ concentration by increasing water reabsorption in DT/CD |
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Renin
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an enzyme secreted into the blood when a decrease in blood pressure is sensed by the kidneys
-renin catalyzes the conversion of inactive angiotensinogen to angiotensin I -angiotensin I circulates through the lungs where Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) converts it to Angiotensin II -Angiotensin II increases BP by: *stimulating the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex *vasoconstriction of systemic arteries *increasing thirst |
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What are the two sets of muscles located in the scrotum and what is their function?
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Dartos muscle- layer of smooth muscle just deep to the skin
Cremaster muscle- smooth muscle deep to the dartos muscle surrounding the testes **contraction/relaxation of these muscles raise/lower the testes to and from the body increasing/decreasing testicular temp |
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Spermatic cord
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a connective tissue sheath which encloses the nerve fibers and blood vessels surrounding the testes
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Seminiferous tubules
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located inside the testes
responsible for the production of sperm -made of sertoli (nurse) cells -spermatogenesis occurs within these cells |
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Interstitial cells
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located between seminiferous tubules in the testes
-synthesize testosterone |
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Rete testes
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the conversion of seminiferous tubules in which sperm move through toward the epididymus
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Epididymus
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mass of coiled tubes on the superficial surface of each testis that sperm pass through leaving the testes
-sperm become more motile passing through here |
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Vas Deferens
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the duct that propels ejaculated sperm from the epidiymus towards the urethra
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Ejaculatory duct
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where the seminal vesicle and vas deferns merge
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Accessory glands
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Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands |
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Seminal vessicles
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2 glands on the posterior wall of the bladder
-secrete seminal fluid (60% of semen volume) -mixes with sperm in the ejaculatory duct |
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Prostate gland
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doughnut shaped gland that encircles the urethra just inferior to the bladder
-secretes prostate fluid into urethra |
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Bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands)
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2 pea sized glands inferior to prostate
-produce mucus during erection to neuralize acidic urine in urethra and for lubrication |
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Vaginal fornix
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where the upper end of the vaginal canal loosely surrounds the cervix of the uterus creating a vaginal recess
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Fimbriae
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ciliated, fingerlike extensions of the fallopian tube
surrounds the ovary |
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Layers of the Uterine Wall
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Endometrium: 2 layered mucosal lining consisting of superficial simple columnar epithelium and deep loose connective tissue containg blood vessels and uterine glands
Myometrium: thick middle layer consisting of smooth muscle Perimetrium: outermost layer consisting of connective tissue |
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Fundus
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rounded superior region of the uterus that connects to the 2 uterine tubes
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Cervix
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narrow neck which connects to the vagina inferiorly
-contains cervical glands that secerete mucus |
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Follicular phase of ovarian cycle
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-FSH stimulates mitosis of the follicular cells
-LH stimulates estrogen secretion from follicular cells to stimulate growth of the uterine endometrium -follicular cells secrete a layer of proteins around the ova called the zona pellucida -continues to grow into a secondary follicle until it reaches maturity as a Graafian follicle |
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Corpus luteum
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after a Graafian follicle ruptures most of the follicular cells remain in the ovary and organize into this
-secretes progesterone following ovulation |
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Mammary glands
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modified sweat glands
consist of: 1. lobes of alveolar glands that produce milk 2. Lactiferous ducts which transport milk to the nipple 3. Nipple |
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Vestibular glands
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2 pea sized glands located on either side of the vaginal opening
-release mucus for lubrication -homologous to cowper's glands in men |
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the effects of testosterone (characteristics)
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appearance of pubic, axillary and facial hair
deepening of the voice skin thickens, becomes oilier bones grow, increase density |
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the effectts of estrogen (characteristics)
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lengthening of long bones, feminization of the skeleton
maturation of breasts and reproductive organs ovulation stimulate female pattern of fat deposit |
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the effects of progesterone
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coordinates with estrogen in stimulating growth of breasts
causes mammary glands to produce milk during pregnancy |
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spermiogenesis
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where the sperm elongates and grows a tail
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spermatozoa
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a mature sperm with head, midpiece and tail
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Oogenesis
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the formation of eggs
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Ovum
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a mature oocyte that has been released from the ruptured follicle resulting in ovulation
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Zygote
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a fertilized ovum
-a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of 2 haploid gametes |
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Acrosomal reaction
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the breakdown of the plasma membrane and release of acrosomal enzymes which digest holes in the zone pellucida
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cleavage
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a period of rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote following fertilization
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Morula
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cluster of 16 or more cells formed by 72 hours after fertilization
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Blastocyst
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fluid filled hollow sphere composed of a single-layer of large, flattened cells (trophoblast cells) and a cluster of small rounded cells
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trophoblast
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a layer of tissue on the outside of a mammalian blastula, supplying the embryo with nourishment and later forming the major part of the placenta.
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implantation
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occurs 6 to 7 days after ovulation
-integrin & selectin proteins on the trophoblast cells bind to the extracellular matrix |
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hCG
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human chorionic gonadotropin
-hormone secreted by trophoblast cells -prompts the corpus luteum to continue secreting estrogen and progesterone |
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Extraembryonic Membranes
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1. amnion (sac that becomes filled with amniotic fluid)
2. yolk sac (sac that hangs from the ventral surface of the embryo) 3. allantois (a small outpocketing of tissue on yolk sac, becomes base of umbilical cord) 4. chorion (forms the placenta) |
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Primary Germ Layers
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ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
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Neuralation
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the differentiation of ectoderm that produces the brain and spinal cord
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Oxytocin
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causes the let-down reflex, the actual ejection of milk
also initiates contractions of the uterus that bring on labor |
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Parturition
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birth of a baby
dilation- from onset of labor to full dilation of cervix by the baby's head expulsion- from full dilation to delivery of infant placental stage- delivery of the placenta |
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Homologues
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a diploid cell that contains 23 pairs of chromosomes
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Autosomes
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chromosomes 1 through 22, not sex determining
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Sex chromosomes
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chromosome 23, either xx or xy
-determine the sex of the individual |
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Cardiac Cycle
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1. semilunar valves are closed, both atria & ventricles are in diastole, blood passes through AV valves to fill both atria & ventricles simultaneously
2. The P wave causes artial systole 3. Blood is ejected from atria to fill ventricles to end diastolic volume 4. The QRS complex causes ventricular systole, increasing pressure in ventricles 5. Ventricular pressure becomes greater than atrial presure causing the AV valves to close 6. Ventricular pressure increases causing semilunar valves to open 7. Blood is ejected from ventricles into great arteries 8. T wave occurs at ventricular diastole, decreasing pressure in the ventricles 9. Ventricular pressure decreases, semilunar valves close 10. Ventricular pressure continues to decrease causing AV valves to open 11. @ the begining |
