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175 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Karyotype |
An ordered display of magnified images of an individual's chromosome arranges in pairs. It detects chromosomal abnormalities. |
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What genetic disorders can be diagnosed using a karyotype? |
Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome), Turner Syndrome, and Klinefelter Syndrome. |
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Nondisjunction |
When a member of a chromosome pair fails to separate. An occasional mishap. |
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When would nondisjunction occur and what would be the resulting chromosome number? |
Meiosis I: Trisomy 2, Monosomy 2 Meiosis II: Trisomy 1, Monosomy 1, 2 Regular Overall: Trisomy 3, Monosomy 1. |
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Deletions |
Chromosomal mutation. Occurs when a chromosomal fragment becomes detached and disappears. |
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Duplications |
Chromosomal mutation. A fragment is attached as an extra segment to the sister chromatid or homologous chromosome. |
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Translocation |
A chromosomal mutation. A fragment joins a non-homologous chromosome. (Two non-homologous chromosomes can exchange segments.) |
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Inversion |
Chromosomal mutation. A chromosomal fragment can reattach to the original chromosome but in reverse. |
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Allele |
Alternate version of a gene. |
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Genotype |
Genetic makeup. |
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Phenotype |
An organism's physical traits. |
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Homologous chromosomes |
Chromosomes that carry alleles of the same gene. |
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Homozygous alleles |
Identical alleles. |
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Heterozygous alleles |
Two different alleles. |
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Law of Segregation |
Sperm and egg only carry one allele for each inherited characters, pairs segregate during gamete production. |
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Independent assortment |
Inheritance of one character has no effect on the inheritance of another. |
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Monohybrid cross |
The mating of parental varieties differing in one character |
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Dihybrid cross |
Mating of parental varieties differing in two characters. |
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Incomplete dominance |
The physical appearance of the first generation after the mating of the parent generation falls in between 2 categories. |
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Give an example of incomplete dominance |
White Flower x Red Flower = Pink Flower |
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Codominance |
Both alleles are dominant. Therefore, both are expressed. |
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An example of codominance |
Spotted Dog |
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polygenic inheritance |
Additive effects of 2+ genes on a single phenotypic character |
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An example of polygenic inheritance |
Skin color |
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Sex- linked disorders |
Any disease or abnormality that is determined by the sex hormones X or Y |
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Example of a sex - linked disorder |
hemophilia |
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How does one determine the probability of an offspring inheriting a sex-linked disorder? |
Whether it is on the X or Y chromosome, a punnet square, and if it recessive or dominant. |
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What is the molecular material of heredity? |
DNA |
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What is the structure of DNA? |
Double-stranded helix. Sugar-phosphate backbone connected to nitrogenous bases A, T, G, C |
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What is a pedigree? |
A diagram that shows how organisms are related and also traces the occurrence of a particular trait or characteristic for several generations. |
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Down-Syndrome |
Trisomy 21. Alludes to short lifespan, developmental disabilities, susceptibility to many diseases and infections. |
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Turner Syndrome |
Genotype: XO Short stature, sterile, normal intelligence. |
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Kleinfelter Syndrome |
XXY Testes abnormally small, sterile, female body characteristics. |
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Jacob Syndrome |
XYY Taller than average |
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Poly X Syndrome |
XXX Regular like any woman, cannot be differentiated unless by karyotyping. |
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Albinism |
recessive autosomal Lack of pigment in skin, hair, and eyes. |
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Cystic Fibrosis |
autosomal recessive Excess mucus in lungs, digestive tract, liver Death in early childhood |
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Phenylketonuria (PKU) |
recessive autosomal Lack of normal skin pigment, developmental disabilities to the brain. |
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Sickle-cell disease |
autosomal recessive, pleiotropy, incomplete dominance. Sickled RBCs, damage to many tissues. |
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Tay-Sachs disease |
autosomal recessive Lipid accumulation in brain cells, mental deficiency, blindness, death in childhood. |
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Achondroplasia |
Dominant autosomal Dwarfism, irregular torso, regular hands and feet |
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Huntington's Disease |
Autosomal dominant Developmental disabilities, uncontrollable movements, strikes in middle age. |
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Hypercholesterolemia |
Autosomal dominant, incomplete dominance Excess cholesterol in blood, heart disease. |
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How does DNA replicate? |
Depends on base-specific pairing, proceeds in two directions but always grows from 5' to 3'. |
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How is DNA and RNA similar? |
Both DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides and have a phosphate sugar backbone. |
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How is DNA and RNA different? |
RNA is single stranded, has ribose not deoxyribose, and uses Uracil not Thymine |
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Gene |
A unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring. |
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Gene mutation |
A mutation in the gene. |
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Mutation |
Any change in the nucleotide sequence of a cell's DNA |
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Mutagenesis |
production of mutations |
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Mutagens |
physical or chemical agents that damage DNA |
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Nonsense mutation |
Amino acid codon changes to a stop codon |
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Spontaneous mutation |
DNA replication errors, recombination |
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Silent mutation |
A nucleotide substitution with no effect as the change = same amino acid as original |
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Missense mutation |
changes one amino acid to another. |
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What are deletion mutations and insertion mutations? |
A frame shift mutation where the insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides proves disastrous to the gene. |
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Transformation |
Uptake of foreign DNA from surrounding environment by bacteria. |
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Transduction |
Transfer of bacterial genes by phage. |
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Conjugation |
Physical union of two bacterial cells and the DNA transfer between them. |
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What is the flow of genetic information in a cell? |
DNA to RNA to Protein |
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How do genes control phenotypic traits? |
Expression of proteins |
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When are genes turned on or off? |
During differentiation or specialization. |
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How do bacteria regulate gene expression? |
Using operons which consist of the gene, the operator, and the promoter. |
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What does the promoter in a bacteria do? |
It is where the sequence of DNA where transcription begins. |
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What is the operator in a bacteria? |
It is a sequence of DNA where the repressor protein binds. |
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A positive control _________ the amount of final product. |
increases |
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A negative control __________ the amount of final product. |
decreases |
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inducible operon |
When molecule is present, operon is on. |
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repressible operon |
When the molecule is present, the operon is off. |
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What produces the repressor? |
Regulatory gene |
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What happens if the RNA polymerase cannot bind to the promoter? |
Enzymes for lactose metabolism are not produced. |
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What are "house-keeping" genes? |
Genes necessary to maintain general cellular functions, i.e. transport and acquiring energy. They are not finely regulated. |
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What are the stages of eukaryotic gene expression? |
Pre-transcriptional Transcriptional(most important) Post Transcriptional Translational Post Translational |
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Pre Transcriptional |
DNA-packing X inactivation Chemical modifications Epigenetics (doesn’t change the nucleotide sequence) |
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What is DNA Packing? |
chromatin packing used to keep genes turned off. |
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What is X Inactivation? |
One X chromosome in female randomly shuts off forming a Barr Body. |
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What are chemical modification? |
methyl-reduces gene expression acetyl- increases gene expression |
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Transcriptional |
Activator proteins bind to the enhancers which is located far away from the gene, proteins bend and connect gene to enhancers, these proteins help connect the RNA polymerase with the promoter |
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Post- transcriptional |
RNA splicing: produces many different genes from the same DNA |
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Translational |
initiation of translation, breakdown of mRNA |
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post translational |
protein activation and protein breakdown |
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What are proto-oncogenes? |
Genes that have the potential to become an oncogene. |
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Mutation in proto-oncogene results in what? |
Promotes cell division |
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Mutation in a tumor-suppressor gene results in what? |
Promotes cell division. |
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What is cloning? |
The production of many identical copies of an organism. |
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DNA Fingerprinting |
Identifies the presence of viral infections, mutated genes, identifications of individuals: crime scenes, paternity, and death. Based upon the differing sequences of DNA nucleotides and unique fragment pattern. |
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PCR |
Technique used to make copies of a particular gene. |
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Gel electrophoresis |
When DNA is placed in a block of gel then goes from negative to positive. Larger pieces get trapped in the fibers and move slower than smaller ones. |
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Recombinant DNA technology |
Scientists combine pieces of DNA from two different sources (often two different species) in a test tube to form one single DNA strand. |
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What are homologous structures? |
Structures that are the same in two or more different species but have a different purpose (arm in human vs wing in bird). |
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What are analogous structures? |
Structures that are different in two or more different species but have the same purpose (wing of bird vs wing of insect). |
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What are vestigial structures? |
Anatomically similar structure but is no longer functional or reduced in similar groups (pelvic girdle in humans and whales). |
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What are mutations and why are they needed? |
Raw material for evolutionary change. |
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What are the evidences for evolution? |
Fossil Evidence - transitional fossils Biogeographical evidence - continental drift Anatomical Evidence - homologous, analogous, vestigal Biochemical Evidence- DNA sequences are more similar between organisms are more closely related |
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What was Darwin's theory of natural selection? |
Dissent with modification (Differences gradually accumulate over time) Mechanism for evolution is natural selection. |
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Hardy Weinberg Equation |
p squared plus 2pq plus q squared equals 1. p+q=1 |
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Hardy Weinberg principle |
Allele frequencies in a gene pool will remain at equilibrium generation after generation in a large, randomly mating, sexually reproducing population if 5 conditions are met. |
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What are the 5 conditions? |
1. No mutations 2. No gene drift 3. No gene flow (movement of alleles between populations.) 4. Random mating 5. No natural selection |
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Mechanism for microevolution? |
Polymerase chain reaction. |
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What was the Miller-Urey experiment? |
Created an experiment that mimicked the environment of primitive earth. |
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Stabilizing selection |
Intermediate phenotype selected. |
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Directional selection |
Extreme phenotypes favored, occurs in a changing environment. |
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Disruptive selection |
Favors two or more extreme phenotypes. |
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Species |
A group of individuals that are capable of interbreeding and are isolated reproductively from other species. |
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What are some pre-zygotic isolating mechanisms? |
Habitat isolation - species occupy different habitats. Temporal isolation - species reproduce at different seasons/times of day. Behavioral isolation - different courtships, songs, calls, or pheromones. Mechanical isolation - genitalia unsuitable for one another. Gamete isolation - sperm cannot reach/ fertilize egg |
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What are some post-zygotic reproductive barriers? |
Zygote mortality - fertilization occurs but zygote does not survive. Hybrid sterility - hybrid survives but cannot reproduce. Decreased fitness - hybrid is fertile but has reduced fitness. |
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Allopatric speciation |
Populations becomes separated by a geographical barrier and gene flow is no longer possible. |
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Sympatric speciation |
occurs without geological barrier |
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Polyploidy |
Cells have more than 2 sets of chromosomes. |
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Phyletic Gradualism |
Change is slow but steady before and after divergence. |
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Punctuated Equilibrium |
Long periods of stasis followed by rapid speciation. |
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What were the major events in the history of life? |
- Earth formed 4.6 BYA - Simple cells 3.9 BYA - First microorganisms seen 3.5 BYA - Multicellular Organisms 1.5 BYA - Complex organisms 600 MYA - Colonization of land 500 MYA - Pangea formed 250 MYA |
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What were the conditions of early Earth? |
A very thin atmosphere that was full of dangerous chemicals. Constantly storming and hostile. |
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What are the different taxonomist levels? |
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species |
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Cocci Bacteria |
Spherical - Chains called streptococci - Blobs called staphylococci |
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Bacilli Bacteria |
Rod-shaped Thread-like of filamentous |
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Spirochete bacteria |
Short and rigid called spirilla Long and flexible called spirochete. |
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Modes of nutrition for bacteria |
Photoautotrops: harness sunlight for energy and carbon dioxide for carbon. Photoheterotrophs: obtain energy from sunlight but get carbon from organic sources Chemoautotrophs: harvest energy from inorganic chemicals and use carbon from carbon dioxide to make inorganic molecules Chemoheterotrophs: acquire energy and carbon from organic molecules. |
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How do bacteria reproduce and exchange genetic material? |
They reproduce by binary fission and exchange genetic material by connecting or releasing genetic material and absorbing it. |
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Viruses Prions Viroids |
Viruses hijack a cell, reproduce, then overtake more cells. Prions are misshapen protein particle Viroids are single-stranded RNA w/out protein coats |
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Diatoms |
Most numerous unicellular algae in oceans, but in freshwater too; utilizes a brown pigment in addition to chlorophyll; component of phytoplankton ; intricate shells of silica. (Under Stramenophiles). |
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Dinoflagellates |
Has cellulose plates and two flagella; component of phytoplankton; generally photosynthetic; some have bioluminescence; neurotoxin and can produce red tide when there is an algal bloom. (Under Alveolates) |
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Brown algae |
Multicellular seaweed; kelp forest; accessory pigments ranging from brown to black so can grow into deeper waters; dominates rocky shores along cold and temperate coasts. (Under stramenophiles) |
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Euglena |
Mixotrophs Freshwater, unicellular organisms. Most have cholorplasts. 2 flagella Eyespots Ingests and absorbs good |
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Red Algae |
Multicellular; contains red and blue pigments and chlorophyll; produce gelling agents. |
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Green Algae |
Closely related to plants; cell walls contain cellulose, have chlorophyll a and b, stores food as starch inside chloroplasts. |
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What characteristics do fungi have in common? |
- Mode of nutrition: absorption - Hyphae: makes up most of the fungi - Fungi have chitin in their cell walls |
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What are the different classifications of Fungi? |
Eukaryotic - Chytrid - Zygomycetes - Glomermycetes - Ascomycetes - Basidiomycetes |
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Chytrid |
Phylum of fungi Only fungi with flagellated spores. Earliest lineage of fungi Common in lakes, ponds, and soil. |
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Zygomycetes |
Phylum of Fungi Characterized by protective zygosporangium, where zygotes produce haploid spored by meiosis. Fast growing molds. |
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Glomermycetes |
Phylum of fungi Forms distinct mycorrhiza which hyphae invade plant root cells 80% of all plants have symbiotic partnership with them |
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Ascomycetes |
(Sac Fungi) Phylum of fungi named for sac-like features called asci that produce spores in sexual reproduction. includes most devastating plant pathogens. |
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Basidiomycetes |
(Club fungi) Phylum of fungi Named for their club-shaped spore-producing structure called basidium. includes rusts and smuts Excel at breaking down lignin in wood and are key decomposers; |
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Sponges |
Simplest of all animals - no nerves or muscles - radially symmetric (Most are asymmetrical) - resembles a thick-walled sack perforated w/ holes - inner layer choanocytes: flagellated 'collar' cells which sweep water through sponge's body. - amoebocytes: wander through middle body region, produce skeletal fibers composed of protein spongin and mineralized particles spicules. |
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What type of feeders are sponges? |
Sessile filter feeders. |
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Cnidarians |
Characterized by radial symmetry and bodies with only two tissue layers. Outer epidermis and inner cell layer lines digestive cavity. Jelly-filled middle region scattering amoeboid cells. Contractile tissues and nerves occur in simplest forms. |
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What are examples of cnidarian diversity? |
Medusa: mouth down Polyp: mouth up |
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Asymmetrical |
Not symmetrical |
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Radial symmetry |
Body parts radiate from the center |
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Bilateral symmetry |
Mirror images to the right and left. |
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Nematodes (Roundworms) |
Bilateral symmetry Fluid-filled body cavity No organs meaning it is a pseudocoelom Complete digestive system |
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What diseases are caused by roundworms? |
Trichinella Hookworm Pinworm Elephantosis |
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Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) |
Simplest bilateral animal organ level of organization. `ectoderm `endoderm `mezoderm sack body plant gastrovascular cavity |
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What are tapeworms? |
Inhabit digestive tract of vertebrates No mouth: absorbs nutrients across body surface No digestive tract. Endoparasite |
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What are planarians? |
Lives in freshwater ponds and streams Free-living Ladder-like nervous system Flame cells: keep water moving towards excretory pores. Bilateral symmetry |
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What are flukes? |
Endoparasites Can lodge into organs Get into blood, lungs, and liver. |
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Major body regions of Mollusks |
1. Muscular foot 2. Visceral mass 3. Mantle |
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What are the classes of Mollusks? |
Gastropods: stomach-footed Bivalves: hatchet-footed Cephalopods: head-footed |
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Annelids |
Segmented Closed circulatory system Longitudinal muscles |
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Three types of annelids |
Earthworms Polychaetes (marine) Leeches |
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Arthropods |
Segmented Jointed appendages Exoskeleton Open circulatory system |
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What are the four groups of arthropods? |
Crustaceans Chelicerates Millipedes/ Centipedes Insects |
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What are the characteristics of crustaceans? |
Swimming appendages Walking legs Mouthparts for feeding Pincers for defense Antennae for sensory reception A cephalothorax (Head + Thorax) An abdomen |
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Give examples of crustaceans |
Lobsters crabs barnacles crayfish sow bugs pill bugs |
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Give examples of Chelicerates |
Horseshoe crabs Arachnids `spiders `scorpions Ectoparasites `ticks `mites |
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Give definition of millipedes and centipedes |
Millipedes: decomposers 2 pairs of legs per segment Centipedes: carnivores 1 pair of legs per segment |
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What are the characteristics of insects? |
Head: antennae with compound/simple eyes Thorax: legs and wings Abdomen: internal organs Exoskeleton: lighter and made of chitin |
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Echinoderms |
Deuterostome Adults are radially symmetrical Larva are bilaterally symmetrical Endoskeleton made of calcium plates Water vascular system to help with locomotion |
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What is the sea star's anatomy? |
Spines on surface. Anus located on the top, the aboreal side. Mouth is located on the underside. Five tube feet Stomach Canals |
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Is the ascaris a nematode or a roundworm? |
Nematode |
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What is the evolutionary order of the chordates? |
Lancelets, tunicates, hagfishes, lampreys, {sharks and rays}, ray-finned fishes, lung fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and finally mammals. |
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Jawless fishes |
No jaws, stationary for the most part. Suspension feeders, notochord was the main support. Some had a rasping tongue. |
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Ectothermic |
animals that absorb external heat rather than generate their own. |
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What is an example of an ectothermic animal? |
Amphibians and reptiles |
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Endothermic |
Animals that generate heat by metabolism to maintain a stable internal environment |
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What is an example of an endothermic animal? |
Mammals and birds |
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Anatomy and physiology of birds |
Teeth: like the dinosaurs Wing claw: like the dinosaurs Feathers- insulating Long tail with many vertebrae: like the dinosaurs Excellent eyesight Highly efficient circulatory system |
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Monotremes |
Reproduce by laying eggs only (platypus) |
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Marsupials |
Reproduce and carry young in a pouch (Kangaroos) |
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Placentals |
Reproduce with more complex placenta. (Humans) |
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What is the circulatory system in fishes? |
One circuit system, two chambers of the heart |
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What is the circulatory system in amphibians? |
Double circulate, three chambers of the heart. |
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What is the circulatory system in reptiles? |
Double Circulate, three chambers of the heart. |
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What is the circulatory system in birds? |
Double circulate, four chambers of the heart |
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What is the circulatory system in mammals? |
Double circulate, four chambers of the heart |
