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137 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Evolution |
Process where significant changes in genes occur over a ling period of time. Fossil records, biogeography, anatomy, embryology, and DNA support this. |
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Fossil |
Preserved remains formed when bodies are trapped in sediments or premineralized. |
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Cuvier |
-palaeontology -each layer has distinct species |
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Actualism: Hutton |
Earth is cyclic |
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Catastrophism: Cuvier |
Extinction replaced with new creatures |
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Uniformitarianism: Lyell |
same as Actualism |
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Hutton's and Lyell's work led to 2 conclusions: |
-earth is old -dramatic change is a long process |
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Homologous features |
Same body part with different function |
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Analogous features |
Same function with different anatomy |
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Vestigial features |
Function only in related species |
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Artificial Selection |
Offspring with trait selected to breed |
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Survival of the Fittest |
Natural selection |
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Darwin |
-began not believing in immutable species -found fossils in Patagonia (Glyptodon, Megatherium) -studied finches -adaptive radiation: each island has own type of animals |
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Natural Selection |
-overpopulation -struggle for existence -variation -survival of the fittest -inheritance -accumulation of traits |
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Buffon |
-breed with same species -humans and apes related -one ancestor |
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Linnaeus |
-evolution -interbreeding |
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Lamarck |
-inherit acquired traits of parents |
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Malthus |
-pop growth lead to short of resources |
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Lyell |
-uniformitarianism -first to believe earth is over 300 million years old |
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Wallace |
-natural selection -encourage develop barriers against hybridization |
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Hutton |
-rocks show time -uniformitarianism |
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Respiratory track |
nose, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli |
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Vital Capacity equation |
VC = TV + IRV + ERV |
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Total Vital Capacity equation |
TLC = VC + RV |
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Why is oxygen needed? |
Cellular respiration |
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What makes up respiration? |
Breathing Gas exchange Cellular respiration |
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What does the nose have and why? |
The nose has cilia and mucus to filter, warm, and moisten the air |
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What is the epiglottis? |
A flap that covers the larynx when swallowing |
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What is the larynx? |
Voice box with two vocal cords, the glottis, and the adam's apple to protect it |
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What is the trachea? |
It has mucus and cilia, made up of semicircular cartilage rings |
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What is the bronchi? |
Has cartilage rings and branch to bronchioles (without cartilage rings) |
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What are alveoli? |
They are for gas exchange as oxygen moves from high to low concentration |
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What is a collapsed lung? |
A break in the pleura, a fluid between membranes surrounding the lung |
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What controls gas pressure? |
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles |
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How does oxygen get transported? |
By Hb in the blood. One Hb has 4 Fe and attaches to O2. HbO2 is called oxyhemoglobin. |
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What is tidal breathing? |
Normal breathing |
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What is Inspiratory Reserve Volume? |
Additional air volume |
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What is expiratory reserve volume? |
Additional volume forced out |
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What is Vital Capacity? |
Total volume that can be moved in and out of lungs |
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What is used to measure lung volume? |
Spirometer |
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What increases breathing rate? |
Primary receptors- increase of CO2 detected by medulla oblongata and sends nerves signals for faster diaphragm and intercostal movement
Secondary receptors- recognize low levels of O2 from the chemoreceptors in the carotid and aorta |
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What is Hypoxia? |
Inability to extract enough oxygen to meed their metabolic needs, typically caused by high altitudes. Body increases RR and produce more RBC. |
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What is emphysema? |
Inflation of alveoli |
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What is the circulatory system? |
Transport system made of heart, blood vessels, and blood. Average has 5L of blood. 55% plasma (90% water, 1% vitamin, gas, hormone) and 45% formed cell solids (44% erythrocytes, 1% leukocytes) |
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What is produced in the red bone marrow? |
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets |
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Tell me about Erythrocytes |
-contain 280 million Hb molecules -lifespan of 120 days -biconcave for greater surface area -700:1 WBC -no nucleus |
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Tell me about Leukocytes |
-kill microbes by phagocytosis -enzymes digest microbe and WBC -have nucleus |
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Tell me about Platelets |
-10 day lifespan -help with blood clotting -no nucleus |
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How are blood types made? |
-antigens attached to RBC membranes -antibodies in plasma |
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What are arteries made of? |
-lumen (hole) -epithelial cell (reduce friction) -smooth muscle -connective tissue |
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What is a pulse? |
Change in diameter of the arteries as blood surges through |
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Fat build up in the arteries is called? |
Atherosclerosis or CAD |
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What are the dangers of atherosclerosis? |
stroke (CAD) myocardial infraction amputation |
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Treatment of atherosclerosis |
<50% Coronary Angioplasty (femoral) 50-60% Stenting 80-90% Bypass (saphenous vein) 90+ Endarterectomy |
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What are aneurysms? |
Ballooning of arteries, commonly found in females due to estrogen levels. For treatment, clamps are placed above and under the bulge with a fabric graft. |
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What is Raynauds Syndrome? |
Vasoconstriction of blood vessels, resulting in decreased blood flow |
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When vein valves fail, what is it called? |
Varicose veins |
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What prevents heart valves from flipping? |
Chordae Tendinae are fibres that prevent the heart valves from flipping |
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What is heart pain due to lack of blood? |
Angina |
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Explain lubb dubb |
Lubb- AV valves closing Dubb- semilunar valves closing |
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Explain systole and diastole |
Systole is contraction and diastole is relaxation of heart chambers |
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What is the cardiac muscle? |
-striated with skeletal and smooth muscle -myogenic because they do not require nerve stimulation |
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Explain HR and ECG |
-set by sinoatrial node -ECG measures change in voltage produced by electrical signals -P is depolarization of atria -QRS is depolarization of ventricles -T is repolarization of ventricles |
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What is Tachycardia? |
>100bpm |
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What is Bradycardia? |
<60bpm |
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What is arrhythmia? |
Irregular heartbeat |
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What is the treatment for arrhythmia? |
Pacemaker which must be changed every 7-8 years |
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What measures BP? |
Sphygomomanometer |
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What is normal syst/diast reading? |
120/80 |
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What affects BP? |
Cardiac output and arteriolar resistance |
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Measure cardiac output |
Stroke volume x bpm |
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What are the 4 components of digestion? |
Ingestion (take in nutrients) Digestion (breakdown of complex nutrients via enzymes) Absorption (transport nutrients) Egestion (waste removal) |
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Describe saliva |
-made from glands released into oral cavity via ducts -amylase to break down carbs -lubricates food |
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Describe tongue |
-mix food with saliva to make bolus -tastebuds in papillae -physical digestion |
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Describe tongue |
-mix food with saliva to make bolus -tastebuds in papillae -physical digestion |
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Parts of teeth |
-incisors -canine -premolars -molars |
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What is a tooth made of? |
-nerve -pulp -dentine -enamel |
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What is a tooth made of? |
-nerve -pulp -dentine -enamel |
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Describe esophagus |
-muscular tube posterior to trachea -secretes mucin for lube -peristalsis -physical digestion |
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What is Esophageal Spasms? |
Disruption of normal peristalsis causing pain and prevents food from going to the stomach. Medication required. |
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What is Esophagitis? |
-lead to ulcer or scaring -difficulty swallowing, acid reflux -medication required |
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Barrett's Esophagus |
-lining replaced with intestinal tissue -unknown cause, no symptoms -cause cancer -associated with GERD |
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Barrett's Esophagus |
-lining replaced with intestinal tissue -unknown cause, no symptoms -cause cancer -associated with GERD |
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GERD |
-reflux disease -lead to ulcer and bleeding |
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Describe the stomach |
-store food -start protein digestion -interior lined with gastric glands and mucosa in the rugae -outer layer is epithelial tissue and 3 muscle layers -churn to chyme |
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What is in gastric juice? |
mucus, pepsinogen, HCl |
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What is in gastric juice? |
mucus, pepsinogen, HCl |
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What does pepsin/protease do? |
Make protein into polypeptides |
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Describe stomach ulcer |
-pH is 2-3 -mucus lining breaks and membrane is exposed to HCl and pepsin |
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Describe small intestine |
-most chemical digestion -7-9m long, 1.5cm diameter -duodenum, jejunum, ileum -duodenum connected with pancreatic and bile ducts -circular folds increase surface area and has villi -jejunum has more folds and break protein and carbs -ileum has fewer and smaller villi, absorbs nutrients, and push remains into large intestine |
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What happens when HCl enters the small intestine? |
-activates prosecretin into secretin to pancreas -send signal to release bicarbonate ions to small intestine to make pH 9 -pH inactivates pepsin |
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What are the pancreatic secretions? |
Trypsinogen -activate enterikinase, inactivating trypsinogen to trypsin, breaking proteins Erepsin -break polypeptides Amylase -continue carb digestion Lipases -break fat into 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids |
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What are the pancreatic secretions? |
Trypsinogen -activate enterikinase, inactivating trypsinogen to trypsin, breaking proteins Erepsin -break polypeptides Amylase -continue carb digestion Lipases -break fat into 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids |
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Describe large intestine |
-1.5m long -absorb water from undigested food -circular muscles prevent waste from passing called anussphincters |
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Describe liver |
-produces bile -bile travels to gall bladder and small intestine -bile acts as emulsifier on oil and fat -bile breaks oil and fat physically -convert glycogen to 2 glucose to maintain blood sugar -recycle dead Erythrocytes -detoxifier |
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Describe liver |
-produces bile -bile travels to gall bladder and small intestine -bile acts as emulsifier on oil and fat -bile breaks oil and fat physically -convert glycogen to 2 glucose to maintain blood sugar -recycle dead Erythrocytes -detoxifier |
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Describe gall bladder |
-stores bile -hormone relaxes sphincter allowing bile into duodenum |
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What are gall stones? |
-crystallized cholesterol when not enough bile salts -can block bile ducts causing pain and impair fat digestion -pain in upper ab, between shoulder blades, under right shoulder -surgery or oral dissolution therapy |
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What are gall stones? |
-crystallized cholesterol when not enough bile salts -can block bile ducts causing pain and impair fat digestion -pain in upper ab, between shoulder blades, under right shoulder -surgery or oral dissolution therapy |
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What is Cirrhosis? |
Parts of the liver destroyed and replaced with connective tissue, typucally from alcohol abuse |
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DNA |
-polymer of 4 nucleotide monomers -A,C,T,G -H bind in base (2 for AT and 3 for CG) -phosphodiester linkage -pyrimidine (hex), purine (hex and pent AG) -replicate, control cell activity, mutate |
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DNA |
-polymer of 4 nucleotide monomers -A,C,T,G -H bind in base (2 for AT and 3 for CG) -phosphodiester linkage -pyrimidine (hex), purine (hex and pent AG) -replicate, control cell activity, mutate |
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DNA fingerprinting |
-get DNA and restricting enzymes -gel plate well -small go to bottom (bottom of plate has positive charge) -distinct pattern formed |
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DNA |
-polymer of 4 nucleotide monomers -A,C,T,G -H bind in base (2 for AT and 3 for CG) -phosphodiester linkage -pyrimidine (hex), purine (hex and pent AG) -replicate, control cell activity, mutate |
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DNA fingerprinting |
-get DNA and restricting enzymes -gel plate well -small go to bottom (bottom of plate has positive charge) -distinct pattern formed |
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Sex Cells formed |
-spermatogonium germ for spermatogenesis -oogonium germ for oogenesis with 3 polar bodies -Down Syndrome (extra 21 chromo) -Turner (X) -Klinefelter (XXY) |
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DNA |
-polymer of 4 nucleotide monomers -A,C,T,G -H bind in base (2 for AT and 3 for CG) -phosphodiester linkage -pyrimidine (hex), purine (hex and pent AG) -replicate, control cell activity, mutate |
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DNA fingerprinting |
-get DNA and restricting enzymes -gel plate well -small go to bottom (bottom of plate has positive charge) -distinct pattern formed |
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Sex Cells formed |
-spermatogonium germ for spermatogenesis -oogonium germ for oogenesis with 3 polar bodies -Down Syndrome (extra 21 chromo) -Turner (X) -Klinefelter (XXY) |
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Mendel's Pea Plant |
-P gen (parent pure) -F1 (hybrid) -notice dominance of traits -alleles: alt form of genes -cross F1 for F2 |
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Law of Segregation |
Traits determined by pairs of factors in gametes |
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Genotype |
Genetic makeup |
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Phenotype |
Appearance |
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Homozygous |
Pure alleles |
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Heterozygous |
Cross of alleles |
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Monohybrid Cross |
Cross of alleles |
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Monohybrid Cross |
Cross of alleles |
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Punnett Square |
Calculate probability |
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Incomplete dominance |
Blend of traits |
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CoDominance |
Both appear |
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Law of Independent Assortment |
Inheritance of alleles for one trait doesn't affect another |
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Law of Independent Assortment |
Inheritance of alleles for one trait doesn't affect another |
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Karotype |
Images of chromosomes in a nucleus |
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Phenylketonuria- recessive |
-convert enzyme phenylalanine to tyrosine inactive -neural damage -avoid protein |
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Alkapotonuria- recessive |
-tyrosine not properly metabolized -acid in urine and oxidizes black |
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Albinism- recessive |
-low in melanin -risk of vision loss |
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Sickle Cell Anemia- codominant |
-reduce blood flow -lethargy, illness, constant pain |
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Sickle Cell Anemia- codominant |
-reduce blood flow -lethargy, illness, constant pain |
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Progeria- dominant |
-accelerated again (die at 13-15a) -LMNA mutation -disrupt nucleus |
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Huntington Disease- dominant |
-destroy brain cells -symptoms at 35a w/15a to deteriorate |
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Human Achondroplasia- dominant |
-average C-L w/short arms, legs, limited range in motion |
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Polydactyl- dominant |
-extra digits |
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Hemophilia- X recessive |
-blood clotting disorder |
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Colour Blind- X recessive |
-greyscale vision |
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Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy- X linked |
-muscle atrophy and engorged with fat and connective tissue -12a can't walk -20a respiratory fail |
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Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy- X linked |
-muscle atrophy and engorged with fat and connective tissue -12a can't walk -20a respiratory fail |
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Pedigrees |
-family tree showing passing of traits -square is male, circle is female -coloured is affected -half coloured is carrier -triangle is twin, slash is dead |
