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148 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Why can sexual dimorphism be advantageous?
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An increased amount of offspring is one advantage of this.
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What is gene flow?
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This is the movement of genes among populations.
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Does gene flow fight or contribute to divergent evolution?
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This fights divergent evolution.
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What is the morphological species concept based on?
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This is based on phenotypic differences between species.
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What is the biological species concept?
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This is based on reproductive isolation. This is the most popular species concept.
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What is the phylogenetic species concept?
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This is when one species equals one branch on the tree of life.
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What is speciation?
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This is the gradual process whereby one species becomes two.
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What is ecological speciation?
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This is when divergent selection drives adaptive divergence and reproductive isolation evolves as a consequence.
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What is polyploidy?
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This is a mechanism that can create very rapid speciation. The number of chromosomes in a gamete is doubled, and is thus mostly incompatible with other, "normal" gametes.
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What is cytoplasmic incompatibility?
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This is when a parasite creates reproductive isolation by making an infected male unable to produce non-infected offspring.
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What are the 5 mechanisms of evolution?
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These are mutation, genetic drift, natural selection, sexual selection, and gene flow.
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What is genetic drift?
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This process, caused by random events, causes random changes in allele frequency. It is heavily influenced by population size and initial allele frequency.
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What are selectively neutral alleles?
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These are alleles that do not affect fitness, ie. eye color.
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What were the consequences of Darwin and Wallace's insights?
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They found that all organisms have potential for exponential growth, and that there is a high mortality in nature.
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What is the prediction of natural selection?
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This is that traits that improve survival and reproduction should increase in frequency over time.
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What is the Daphne Major drought?
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This was a 1977 drought in the Galapagos that caused a major shift in finches' beaks because the seeds changed.
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What are the 2 processes of sexual selection?
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There is intra-sexual selection (M-M competition) and inter-sexual selection (F-M choice).
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What is stabilizing selection?
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This is when the average is preserved by favoring those individuals that are close to the average.
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What is directional selection?
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This is when individuals who diverge in ONE direction from the mean are favored.
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What is disruptive selection?
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This favors individuals who diverge from the mean in either direction.
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What is the Anthropocene?
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This is the current period in Earth's history, beginning in the Industrial Revolution.
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What is the Millennium Assessment Project?
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This is a 2005 UN report that set trends for global ecosystem health.
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What are the 5 main forms of global change?
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These are habitat and climate change, invasive species, over-exploitation, and pollution.
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Why do corridors maintain species diversity?
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These maintain diversity because they are not isolated.
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What is albedo?
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This is a measure of light reflection.
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What are the consequences of global climate change?
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These include ranges of species and crops moving, loss of coral reefs, melting glaciers, increased tropical diseases, and more intense tropical storms.
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How do we affect the nitrogen cycle?
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We affect this because most of this element is in the atmosphere and is not bio-available and must be fixed by organisms or plants. We fix this artificially through fertilizer.
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What are the consequences of nutrient pollution?
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In aquatic ecosystems, there can be an increase in algal biomass and thus a decrease in fish.
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How can we distinguish between natural and human activity?
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One way to determine this is long-term monitoring. Another way is using multiple sampling sites instead of multiple years. A final way is using paleoliminology, which uses lake sediments.
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What is the phosphorus cycle?
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This where phosphorus moves between the seafloor, algae, the earth's crust, lakes and rivers, plants and animals, and the soil.
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What is the difference between apes and monkeys?
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Apes have a larger body/brain than most monkeys.
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What are the other species in the Homo genus and what are their characteristics?
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Homo habilius (first to use tools), Homo erectus (first to move out of Africa), Neanderthals (coexisted with us, we drove extinction of), and homo floresiensis (hobbit).
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Which end of the neural tube experiences differentiation?
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The anterior end of the neural tube experiences this.
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What is the limbic system?
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This is the "pleasure and pain" centers in the midbrain.
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What parts of the fetal brain give rise to the forebrain?
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The telencephalon and the diencephalon give rise to this.
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What do the pons do?
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These assist with breathing.
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What does the medulla oblongata do?
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This controls all involuntary reflexes and is basically an extension of the spinal chord.
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What does the cerebellum do?
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This controls muscular coordination and receives commands from the higher brain.
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What does acetylcholine work on?
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This works on the parasympathetic nervous system and is sisters with norepinephrine.
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What are the functions of the sympathetic nervous system?
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This dilates pupils, inhibits salivation, relaxes airways, accelerates heartbeat, inhibits digestion, stimulates the breakdown of glycogen and releases glucose, inhibits activity of intestines, relaxes the urinary bladder, and stimulates orgasm.
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What are the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?
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This constricts pupils, enhances salivation, contricts airways, slows the heartbeat, stimulates digestion, lightly raises glucose to glucagon synthesis, increase the activity of the intestines, stimulates urinary bladder, and stimulates arousal.
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What are the mammalian groups?
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These are the prototherians (aka monotremes), the eutherians, and the marsupials.
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How do the developmental structures of the mammalian groups vary?
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Monotremes are egg laying. Marsupials have pouches, and eutherians use a placenta.
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What are the consequences of a placenta?
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These consequences are that the yolk is superfluous, waste can't accumulate, and there can be only one pregnancy at a time.
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What are the four defining characteristics of mammals?
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The characteristics of this group are hair, a four-chambered heart, sweat glands, and mammary glands.
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What is the function of the temporal fenestrae?
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These allow for muscle attachment, which gives a more powerful jaw.
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What early synapsid gave rise to mammals?
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This synapsid was called a Therapsid, which looked like a reptile.
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What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?
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The advantages of this mode of reproduction is that it is less risky, less energetically costly, and is advantageous for stable environments.
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What/where is the zona pellucidia?
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This is beneath the cumulus (a gelatinous matrix) and ensures that species don't mix because sperm must bind with it and trigger and acrosomal reaction.
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What is the diference between sequential and simultaneous hermaphroditism?
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The difference is that in one type, an individual may function as a male and a female at different times, and in the other type, an organism can be both male and female at the same time.
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How do substances pass between mother and fetus?
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These pass between mother and fetus by diffusion.
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What is the advantage of land?
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There is faster gas diffusion, a higher concentration of 02 in the medium, fewer predators (initially), and less competition for food and oxygen during the Devonian droughts in this medium.
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What are the disadvantages of land?
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This is associated with a higher risk of desiccation, more intense UV radiation, less support, and no (existing) medium for fertilization and development.
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Do lobed-fin fishes (Sarcopterygians) have one or two pockets of air?
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These have paired ventral air pockets off of the esophagus.
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How do organisms combate desiccation and density problems?
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Organisms must use scales and an amniotic egg to combat one problem, and stronger limbs, a vertebral column, ribs, and a more efficient circulatory system (including a 3+ chambered heart) to combat another problem.
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What are the solutions to the temperature and UV problems?
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Organisms use feathers, fur, and scales to combat one problem, and added endothermy, and behavioral adaptations to combat another.
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What are the mechanisms for gas exchange?
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There can be diffusion across all body cell, capillaries to carry gases to and from the respiratory system, or specialized organs for respiration.
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Do mammals use positive or negative breathing?
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This group uses negative pressure breathing.
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What parts of blood carry and hold O2?
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Hemoglobin will carry this, and myoglobin stores this.
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What are the circulatory differences between adult and larval amphibians?
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Adults will have lungs and a 3-chambered heart, and larvae will have gills and a 2-chambered heart. To transition, they undergo metamorphosis.
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What are the 3 groups of amphibians?
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These are the frogs and toads, the salamanders, and the Caecilians.
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How do amphibians parent?
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These animals provide little parental care to their young (few will nurture them.) These animals can be pouch, vocal sac, and gastric brooders.
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What is the difference between crocodiles and alligators?
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Crocodiles have a v-shaped snout, which allows them to each harder shells.
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What characteristics do birds and dinosaurs share?
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These two groups share bipedalism, 3 hind toes, a carnivorous diet, a 4-chambered heart, lungs, feathers, hollow bones, and parental care styles.
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Why do birds have diverse beaks?
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This is because of the high diversity in diets of birds.
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What is the difference between endo- and ecto- thermic animals?
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One group produces heat through metabolic processes, and the other group must absorb external heat.
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What are heterotherms?
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These are animals that can change types of thermy depending on their needs ie: bears in winder will use ectothermy during hibernation.
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What are behavioral thermoregulating behaviors?
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These include orientation relative to a heat source, like basking, huddling, and moving locations throughout the day.
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What are physiological thermoregulating behaviors?
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These include controlling blood flow to the periphery, sweating, panting, and shivering.
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What are physical thermoregulating behaviors?
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These include insulation, as well as surface area to volume ratios and color adaptations.
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What are the costs of endothermy?
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The costs of this kind of thermy include insulation, cooling system, and fuel, all of which need energy and food. This redirection of resources occurs at the expense of growth.
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How does breathing happen in birds?
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This happens in two breaths, and is unidirectional through the lungs and the anterior and posterior lung sacs.
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Why is the sternum different in birds?
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This is a flight adaptation to increase surface are for the attachment of large flight muscles.
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How many times has flight evolved?
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This has evolved four times: in insects, in pterodactyls, in birds, and in bats.
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What wing feature reduces turbulence in birds?
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The alula accomplishes this.
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What is the ground up theory of flight evolution?
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This theory states that there was a dinosaur that ran up trees assisted by wings to escape from predators. This is supported by the chukars.
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What is the tree down theory of flight evolution?
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This theory states that there was a dinosaur that liked to jump out of trees and glide from one to the next. This is supported by the microraptorfossil, because it has feathers on its wings and legs.
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When did reptiles arise?
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These amniotes arose during the Carboniferous.
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What are the parts and function of the amniotic egg?
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This developmental structure may have a leathery or brittle external shell made of calcium carbonate, an amnion (for protection), a yolk sac (for nutrition), an allantois (for gas exchange and waste storage), and albumin, and a chorion (for gas exchange and water loss prevention).
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What are the consequences of an amniotic egg?
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The consequences of this developmental structure are that there must be internal fertilization and a non-toxic waste product must be used.
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What are the 3 kinds of waste products?
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These are salts and ions, water, and nitrogenous wastes.
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What are the differences between osmoconformers and osmoregulators?
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These organisms vary the composition of their extracellular fluid with the environment, and the countergroup of organisms hold the makeup of their extracellular fluid constant without input from the environmental conditions.
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What are the various excretory products for nitrogenous wastes?
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Urea (which is non-toxic and soluble in water, used by fish, adult amphibians, and mammals), uric acid (which is non-soluble in water, non-toxic, and only requires a little water for disposal. Used by the amniotic egg), and ammonia (which is soluble in water by very toxic. can be converted to urea or uric acid).
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What are the excretory organs for various animals?
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Insects use malpighian tubules, vertebrates use kidneys made of nephrons, segmented worms use metanephridia and tubules, and flatworms use flame cells and tubules (known as a protonephridia).
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Where does filtration of waste products occur?
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This happens in Bowman's capsule.
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What is the loop of Henle?
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This is a structure that is excellent at reabsorbing water an concentrating the waste product to a point where it is a stronger concentration than the blood.
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How is urine controlled by ADH?
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This acts on cells to insert water channels to membranes and allow for more water in the interstitial areas of the collecting duct.
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What are the characteristics of the reptile classes?
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The testudines have dorsal and ventral bony plates forming a shell, the tutaras have a third eye, the leptidosaurs have horny scales, and the archosaurs are almost all extinct.
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When did protostomes and deuterostomes split?
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This split happened around the Cambrian period.
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What characteristics do echinoderms have?
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These organisms are radially symmetrical with bilateral larvae, are (benthic) marine, and have a hard exoskeleton of calcium carbonate.
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What is the water vascular system?
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This system, used in echinoderms, ends in tube feet and has chemical and tactile sensory structures and extend through pores in the endoskeleton.
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Do echinoderms use asexual or sexual reproduction?
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These organisms use both modes of reproduction and are diecious broadcast spawners.
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What are the differences of the 5 classes of echinoderms?
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The Crinoids are filter-feeders, the Ophiuroidea have jointed plates and arm spins, the basket stars have fractal arms, the Echinoids are stereotypical, and the Holothuroids respire anally.
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What is the process of neurulation?
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This is when the ectoderm folds and pinches off to form neural crest cells, and then completely separates from the rest of the ectoderm.
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What are the vital and common Chordate characteristics?
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The vital characteristics of this group include a dorsal hollow nerve cord, a post-anal tail, and a dorsal notochord. The characteristics commonly found in this group include a ventral heart and reduced segmentation (except for the segmented musculature).
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What is a urochordate?
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This Chordate uses incurrent and excurrent siphons for filter feeding. It also develops a rigid outer structure of proteins known as a tunic as an adult.
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What are the classic Arthropod characteristics?
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This group of Ecdysozoans has jointed appendages and a rigid exoskeleton.
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When did molting develop?
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This Ecdysozoan characteristic has been taking place since the Cambrian.
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What are the advantages of a rigid exoskeleton?
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These include physical support, a place for muscle attachment, physical protection, jointed appendages for faster locomotion, and an opportunity to change morphology.
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What are the disadvantages of a rigid exoskeleton?
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These include being inflexible and heavy, the stifling of continuous growth, the redirection of energy to support formation and molting, disabling the use of cilia as effectors, and blocking respiration through the skin.
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What are the three kinds of skeletons?
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These are the hydrostatic skeleton, the exoskeleton, and the endoskeleton.
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What are myofibrils?
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These are protein bundles that compose muscle fibers.
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What are sarcomeres?
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This is the contractile unit of muscle cells.
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What is the H-zone?
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This zone is where contraction occurs, and where actin fibers slide over the myosin.
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What is made of actin monomers, tropomyosin and troponin?
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Actin filaments are made of these three things.
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What bind to actin?
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Ca2+ binds to troponin on this filament.
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What is the difference between fast and slow twitch fibers?
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These kinds of fibers can develop maximum tensity quickly, fatigue quickly, but cannot sustain a contraction for a long period of time.
The opposite of these fibers are known as "red muscles" and are full of myoglobin, and can maintain a steady production of ATP as long as O2 is available. |
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What are the function and location of the three kinds of muscles?
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Skeletal muscles are striated, multinucleated muscles under voluntary control. Cardiac muscles are striated and branched, and have pacemaker cells regulated by the autonomic nervous system. The smooth ucles do not have a regular arrangement of the actin and myosin fibers, and are long, spindly, and mononucleated.
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What are the characteristics of the 4 major Arthropod groups?
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The Myriapods and Diplopods have one pair appendages per segment, the chelicerates have fangs, crustaceans live in a marine environment, and the hexapods have 3 body regions.
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When did wings evolve?
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These evolved around 320 million years ago.
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What makes up the respiratory system of arthropods?
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This system is made up of spiracles that open into tracheae that branch into finer tubes.
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What is the reproductive system of the arthropod composed of?
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This group uses internal fertilization on land and varies the method in water, and some use spermatophores (waterproof packets of male gametes).
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Which kind of metamorphosis is characterized by abrupt changes in form and habitat?
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Complete metamorphosis has these characteristics.
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How do hormones function?
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These function by binding to receptors in cells.
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What kind of hormone acts on the producing cell?
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Autocrine hormones do this.
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What is the function of PTTH?
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This hormone (whose production is influenced by environmental cues) controls the activity of the prothoracic gland and indirectly controls the production of ecdysone.
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What are instars?
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These are the various stages between molts.
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What does epinephrine do?
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This hormone tells the liver to convert glycogen to glucose, encourages the heart to beat faster, and constricts blood vessel to unnecessary organs.
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What does ADH do?
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This hormone, produced when there is a high salt concentration in the blood, results in water conservation and more concentrated urine.
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What does oxytocin do?
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This causes the smooth muscles of the uterus to contract, causes the mammary glands to release milk, and creates a refractory period in males.
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What does insulin do?
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This hormone lowers blood glucose and is produced in the pancreas.
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Which cells produce insulin?
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Beta cells in the pancreas produce this hormone.
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What is the opposing hormone to insulin?
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This hormone is glucagon, which is produced in the alpha cells.
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When is PTH and calcitonin released?
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These hormones are released when the calcium concentration in the blood is too low or too high, respectively.
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What is upregulation?
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This is when the number of receptors on cells increases because of a lowered concentration of a hormone in the blood (ie. beta blockers.)
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What is downregulation?
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This is when the number of receptors on a cell decreases because of a high concentration of hormone in the blood (ie Type 2 diabetes).
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What are the three crucial parts of the mollusk body plan?
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These parts are the foot, the visceral mass, and the mantle.
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What group of mollusk has segmented shells?
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Polyplacophora have this kind of shell.
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Which group of mollusk has a large muscular foot?
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Polyplacophorans have this kind of foot.
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Are nudibranchs bivalves?
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No, these are gastropods with cerrata.
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What is the difference between cephalopods and other mollusks?
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This mollusk group has a closed circulatory system and a mantle variation that produces tentacles.
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Which cells in the nervous system have a support function?
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Glial cells like Schwann cells have this function.
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What are the function of the parts of a neuron?
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The dendrites receive information, the cell body contains the nucleus and most of the cell organelles, the axon hillocks integrate information collected by the dendrites and initiate the action potential, and the axon synapses to the target cell.
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Where is the majority of potassium ions before an action potential?
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This is mostly inside of the cell before an action potential.
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What are the steps to an action potential?
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First, this process begins with the resting potential (-60mV). Then a few Na+ channels open, and the membrane slightly depolarizes. The next step is when the threshold potential is reached and the membrane fully depolarizes, causing a spike, which then hyperpolarizes in response. Finally, the neuron returns to resting potential.
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What is the function of a node of Ranvier?
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These nodes, produced by Schwann cells, allow for faster conduction of a nervous impuse.
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What is saltatory conduction?
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This is when an impulse is rapidly propagated down an axon.
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What is the purpose of pharyngeal slits?
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These traits are useful for filter feeding and respiration. In humans, these become the ear and some glands.
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What is the advantage of a countercurrent exchange?
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This kind of exchange maximizes the uptake of gases from water to the blood.
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Does the heart pump oxygenated or deoxygenated blood in fish?
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The heart pumps only deoxygenated blood in this organism.
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What are the two characteristics of the vertebrate's circulatory system?
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These organisms have a ventral heart and a closed circulatory system.
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What is the hagfish/lamprey dilemma?
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While these two organisms are genetically similar, but one doesn't have a vertebrate column and only has a partial cranium and brain. This organism also has 3 accessory hearts.
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What are placoderms?
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These are the earliest type of jawed fishes, present in the Silurian and Devonian eras.
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What are chondrichthyans?
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These are cartilaginous fishes (like sharks), which have a jaw, paired fins, and an oily liver instead of a swim bladder.
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What is an oviparous organism?
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These are organisms that lay eggs after fertilization.
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What is an oviviparous organism?
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These organisms retain embryos in utero, but the embryo feeds off a yolk sac.
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What is a viviparous organism?
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These organisms retain embryos in utero but lack a yolk sac.
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Why are sarcopterygians important?
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These are the closest relatives to terrestrial tetrapods.
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