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114 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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define what is meant by homoeostasis in living systems
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homeostatasis is a "steady state" or "body wisdom"
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describe how homesostasis is maintained
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homeostatsis is maintained by negative feedback
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describle the relationship between cells tissues organs and organs systems
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cell makes up tissue
tissue makes up organ organ makes up organ system |
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identify the four major tissues found in the body
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epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve tissue
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describe epithelial tissue where? function?
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epithelial tissue covers surface and lines hallow cavities of the body (like the inside of your cheek) the function is protection
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describle connective tissue, what is it?
where is it found? what is its functions? |
living cells and non living non living cellular matrix, its found in bone, cartilage and blood,
its function is that they connect muscles to bones, support, protection |
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what are the three types of muscle tissue and where are they found?
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a) skeletal muscle=muscles attached to bones
b) smooth muscle=in walls of hallow or tubular organs and structures c) cardiac muscles=walls of heart |
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what are the functions of muscle tissue?
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motion, locomotion, movement of substances through the body, thermogenesis=production of heat
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where is nervous tissue found?
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in the
a) central nervous system 1.brain 2.spinal b) peripheral nervous system nerves 1.cranial nerves 2.spinal nerves |
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what is the cunction of nerve tissue
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communication among body parts
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what is the function of hair?
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1. protection
-against uv light damage to skin -prevents glare -prevents dirt from entering the eye -protects against injury (thermoregulation=temp regulation, but not applicable for humans) |
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what is the function of the oil in the skin?
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1. lubriate stratum corneum and hair shaft
2.prevents the skin/hair from drying out 3.serves to feed bacteria=pimples |
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what are the functions of the sweat glands?
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1.excretion=removal of metabolic wastes from body
2.thermoregulation=by evaporative cooling |
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what are the functions of the subcutaneous layer? (fat)
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1. protection
a) shock abosorber=cushion b) energy storage c) serves as building blocks for chemical synthesis d) thermal insulation |
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what are the functions of the integument?
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1) protection agains damage
a) uv light damage b) chemical damage c) mechanical injury d) water loss or gain 2. sensory imput 3. thermoregulation 4. energy storage 5. excretion=sweat glands |
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what are the three types of cartilage?
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1. hyaline cartilage=end of nose
2. elastic cartilage=external ear 3. fibrocartilage=joints |
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what are the major functions of the skeleton system?
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1. support
2. protection 3. reovoir for calcium 4. attachement sites for skeletal muscle 5. production of blood cells in bone marrow |
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what are the types of joints?
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1. hinge
2. gliding 3. ball and socket 4. immovable joint=bone of skull 5. partially movable joint |
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sliding filament theory of muscle contraction
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1. brain sends signal to motor units via motor nerves
2. when signal reaches muscle cells, the cell membrane=sarcolemma de polarizes 3. de-polarization of sarcolemma causes the endoplasmic reticulum=sarcoplasmic reticulum to release stored calcium 4. the release of calcuim causes tropain-tropomyosin jacket to uncover actic myofilaments 5. as soon as troponin ttropomyosin uncovers the actin, the myosin heads attach to actin and rotate 6. rotation of myosin heads casuses myosin filaments to slide past filaments of actin=sarcomere shortens=muscle contraction |
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describe the process of relaxation in muscles contractions
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1. brain stops sending signal via motor nerves to motor units
2. sarcolemma re-polarizes 3. repolarization of sarcolemma casues sarcoplasmic reticulum to take back the calcium 4. atp-is broken down into adp + p + energy 5. the energy is used to do 2 things: a)to disattach myosin heads from actin b)re-rotate myosin heads to prepare for next contraction 6.troponin-tropomyosin re-covers actin filaments 7. =relaxation |
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describe the latent period in muscle contractions
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period ot time after the muscle has been stimulated but before it begins to contract
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describe the refractory period in muscle contractions
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period of time during muscle contraction in which a second stimulus will not cause additional muscle contraction
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what is multiple motor unit summation?
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the more motor units that are stimulated to contract, the stronger the total contraction
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what is meant by muscle tone?
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measure of muscle firmness=during rest, a few motor units at a time take turns contracting 100%
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describe how the "all or none" law of muscle contraction applies to a single muscle cell, motor unit, and sarcomere
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1. one motor unit can contract 100% or 0%
2. one muscle cell can contract 100% or 0% 3. one sarcomere can contact 100% or 0% |
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distinguish among ingestion, digestion, and absorption
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ingestion=eating
digestion=chemical breakdown of large marcromolecules into their building blocks absorption=movement of building blocks down from digestive tract into bloodstream for distribution throughout the body |
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what the four major macromolecules and what are their building blocks
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a) carbohydrates=simple sugars=glucose, fructose amino acids
b) proteins=amino acids c) lipids=glycerol and fatty acids d) nucleac acid-nucleoditides |
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trace a drop of blood through the heart:
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a) blood moves from head, neck and shoulders throught the superior vena cava, at the same time blook moves from lower body into the inferior vena cava
b) blood enters the right atrium, flows past the tricuspid valve c) blood enters the right ventricle and is pumped up through the pulmonnary semi-lunar valve d) blood leaves the hear through the pulmmonary arteries and travels to the lungs where co2 and oxygen are exchanged e) blood travels from lungs to the heart via the pulmonary veins and enters the left atrium f) blood flows past the bicuspid valve and enters the left ventricle g) blood is pumped past the aortic semi lunar valve and flows out of the heart through the aorta h) blood flows to upper and lower body where 02 and co2 are exchanged a&b) blood returns from upper and lower body and enters the superior and inferior vena cava |
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identify the nodal tissues responsible for the rythmic contractions of the heart
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sinotrial node= your heart's pacemaker
ends electrical impulses across surface of the 2 atria causing them to contract 2. atrio-ventricular node= sends electrical impulses across the surface of the 2 ventricles causing them to contract |
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what do the waves of the EKG represent?
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P wave=depolarization (=contraction of 2 atria)
Q R S=the atria are repolarizing (relaxing) and ventricles are depolarizing T wave= ventricles are repolarizing=relaxing |
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what does whole blood consist of?
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1. liquid component=plasma
2. cellular component |
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what is the liqid portion of the blood minus large proteins?
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tissue fluid= lymph
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what does plasma consist of?
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1. 92% water
2. glucose 3. amino acids 4. nucleotides 5. oxygen 6. wastes co2 and urea 7. hormones 8. salts 9. proteins a alubumin-osmoregulation=water balance of blood and tissues b) globulins=antibodies fight infection c) fibrinogen=blood clotting |
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what does the cellular portion of whole blood consist of?
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1. erythrocyes
2. thrombocytes 3. leukyocytes |
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describe erythrocytes
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red blood cells
most numerous of cells no nucleus filled with hemoglobin carry oxygen and co2 produced by red bone marrow |
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describe thromobyes
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platelets
smallest of the blood cells no nucleus participate in blood clotting produced by red bone marrow |
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describe leukyocyes
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white blood cells
largest of the blood cells large nucleus present fights infection produced by red bone marrow and lymph nodes |
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what are the two kinds of leukyocytes?
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granular- have granules in cytoplasm can be easily identified by lobed shape of nucleus
1. neutrophils 2. basophils 3. eosinophils agranular =no granules in the cytoplasm can be easily identified by presense of round nucleus -lymphocytes -monocytes |
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what is erythroblastosis fetalis?
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"blue baby" the mothers immune system attacks the baby's red blood cells and destroys them
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describe what happens during the first pregnancy of erythroblastis fetalis
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rh negative mother is married to rh positive man and she is carryin an rh positive baby
1. mothers blood stays in her circulatory system and babys blood stays in his circulatory system. baby has rh proteins on his rbc membrane, mother has no immune response 2. at birth of the baby, when the connection (placenta) between mom and baby tears away, mother and baby's blood touches 3. moms immune system detects presence of babys rh proteins and she begins to build anti rh antibodies 4. first baby has been disconnected and does not suffer |
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Describe what happens during the second pregnancy of erythroblastis fetalis
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1. rh negative mother is pregnant with another rh positive baby
2. since birth of 1st baby, mothers immune system has been producing anti rh antibodies, they cross the placenta and destroy babys rh antigens which are in its red blood cells 3. mothers anti rh antibodies destroy baby's red blood cells, babys body deprived of o2 and either dies in utero or is born with brain damage |
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how would you prevent erythroblastis fetalis?
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give the mother the rhogam vaccine
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distinguish between internal respiration, external respiration and ventilation
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a) internal respiration=exchange of o2 and co2 between blood and all organs of body
b) external respiration=exchange fo o2 and co2 in lungs c) ventilation=breathing |
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what is tidal volume?
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the volume of air you inhale and exhale at rest
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what is inpiratory reserve volume
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the volume of air you can inhale after taking a normal or tidal inhalation
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what is expiratory reserve volume
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the volume of air you can exhale after taking a normal or tidal exhalation
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what is vital capacity
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the sum of tidal and inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume=the biggest breath you can inhale and exhale
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what is residual volume
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the volume of air you cannot exhale, it keeps the alveoli partially inflated
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what is total lung capacity?
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the sum of vital and residual volume
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identify the means by which the alveoli are prevented from collapsing and sticking together
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the chemical producec surractant that works to reduce surface tension=less sticky
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describe teh composition of the air we inhale and exhale
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inhaled air exhaled air
o2 21% 13% co2 0.04% 5.7% |
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what is meant by excretion? what are the major organs and structures responsible for excretion?
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excretion= removal of metabolic wastes from body
major organs responsible for excretion= skin=sweat glands lungs colon liver kidneys |
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what does the skin/sweat glands excrete?
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a. h2o
b. salts c. urea |
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what do the lungs excrete?
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a. co2
b. h2o c. alcohol |
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what does the liver excrete?
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1. ammonia
2. bile salts |
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what does the colon excrete?
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heavy metal salts
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what do the kidneys excrete?
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1. h20
2. salts 3. urea (all these equal urine) |
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micturition in a child less than three years old
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1. bladder fills with urine
2. stretch receptor is stimulated and sends message to spinal cord 3. spinal cord sends message through motor nerve to the internal sphincter telling it to open 4. external sphincter is not yet under nervous system control, it is wide open and as soon as the internal sphincter opens=child urinates |
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micturition in a child over three years old
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1. steps 123 are the same as previous
2. although the external sphincter is open, the child does not uriinate because the external sphincter is under voluntary control now that it is connected to teh spinal cord via a second nerve |
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describe filtration
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where? between the glomerulus and the bowman's capsule
what? the liquid portion of blood=tissue fluid=lymph=glomerular filtrate minus the large proteins leaves the glomerulus and collects in bowmans capsule |
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describe reabsorption
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where? PCT, LH, DCT, CD
what? the movement of valuable nutrients from the PCT LH & CD into the peritubular capallary bed |
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what is absorbed in the peritubular capillary bed during reabsorption?
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65% h2o
65% Nacl 100% glucose most amino acids |
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what is absorbed in the loop of henley during reabsorption?
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25% nacl
15% h2o |
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identify the role played by vasopressin in the formation of urine
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a. dehydration=from loss of h2o or from eating salty foods, brain releases a large amount of vasopressin which causes a large amount of water to move from the DCT and CD into the peritubular cap. bed person produces a small amount of concentrated urine=saves h2o
b. too much h2o=overhydration brain does not release much vasopressin so the water in DCT and CD does not move into the peritubular cap. bed=no reabsorption person produces a large quantity of dilute urine |
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distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands. identify the means by which hormones are transported throughout the body
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enocrine gland=no tubes or ducts
exocrine gland=have ducts -hormones are transported through the body by diffusing into the nearest capillary bed |
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describe the mechanisms of hormone function
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1. some hormones work by altering cell membrane permeability
2.some hormones work by turning genes "on" and "off" 3 some hormones work by affecting protein synthesis 4.some hormones work by activating enzymes |
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what does the anterior lobe of the pituitary produce?
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1. somatotropin=growth hormone
2. follicle stimulating hormone women-causes ovarian follicles to develop, stimulates production of estrogens by ovarian follicles men-stimulates spermatogenesis 3. lutenizing hormone women-ovulation, formation of corpus luteum =stimulates corpus luteum to produce testosterone 4.thyroid stimulating hormone=stimulates hormone production of thyroid 5. adrenocortictrophic hormone=stimulates adrenal gland prolactin=women=responsible for production of milk |
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what does the posterior lobe of pitutiary produce?
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1. vasopressin=responsible for absorption of water from DCT & CD
2. oxytocin women-milk let down, labor contractions=mother baby bonding men-female/male bonding |
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what does the thyroid gland produce?
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a. thryroxin=regulates metabolic rate
b. calcitonin=regulates blood levels of calcium and phosphorous |
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what does the parathyroid gland produce?
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a. parathyroid hormone=regulates blood levels of calcium and phosphorous
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what is the thymus gland? where is it located?
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located in small children, gets smaller as you grow older
responsible for maturation of white blood cells |
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what does the pancreas produce?
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1. insulin= allows glucose to enter cells from blood=decreases blood levels of glucose
2. glucogen hormone= converts starch in liver=glycogen into glucose-enters the blood raises blood glucose levels |
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what does the adrenal cortex produce
where is it located |
1. cortisol=fat and sugar metabolism
2. aldosterone=regulate salt content of blood=sodium potassium located in the small intestine |
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what does the adrenal medulla produce?
where is it located? |
1. epiniphrine
2. norepinephrine located in the small intestine |
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what do the ovaries produce?
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1. estrogens=responsible for female secondary sex characteristics
2. progesterone= the hormone of pregnancy |
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what does the placenta produce?
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1. chorionic gonadotropin=progesterone -stimulates corpus luteum to produce progesterone
2. progesterone |
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what does the testes produce
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testosterone=responsible for male secondary sex characterisics
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describe hyer/hypo in somatotropin
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1. hypo=dwarfisim
2. hyper=if growth zones are still present after 18=gigantism if after 18=cant grow taller but bones get thicker and heavier=acromegaly |
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describe hyper/hypo in insulin
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hypo=not enough insulin=diabetes mellitus
symptoms =thirst, frequent urination, tired, loss of sight amputation of limbs |
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describe hyper/hypo in thyroxine
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hyper=too much thyroxine; never tired unlimited energy, no weight gain, hot to touch, damage to heart and other organs, bulging eyes
hypo= not enough, always tired easy weight gain cold to touch, goiter in the throat |
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28 day mentral cycle= no pregnancy
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day 5- anterior pituitary releases FSH
(FSH casues all follicles to produce estrogens and causes the developmental race) day 12-anterior pituitary is producing high levels of FSH which in turn, stimulating the follicles to produce high levels of estrogens -high levels of estrogens feedback neg. on the pituitary which results in FSH being shut off day 14-as result of neg feedback FSH and estrogens levels are decreasing. falling levels of FSH and estrogens trigger the pituitary to release LH (LH causes ovulation, causes formation of corpus luteum, casues corpus luteum to begin producing progesterone day 21-anterior pituitary is producing high levels of LH, LH is causing the corpus luteum to produce high levels of progesterone -high levels of proesterone feedback neg. on the pituitary which results in LH being shut off. falling levels of LH result in the corpus luteum ceasing production of progesterone day 28-falling levels of LH and progesterone trigger a reduction of blood flow to the endometrium-necrotic endometrium day 1-5=bleeding |
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28 day menstruel cycle plus pregnancy
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day 1-14 same as previous
day 21-zygote has been planted into the uterus endometrium to form the connection between mother and baby=placenta. the placenta will begin to produce choriotic gonadotropin months 4-9=placenta produces progesterone to maintain pregnancy month 9-posterior lobe of pituitary releases oxytocin |
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what is meant by having an ectopic pregnancy?
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implantation of a zygote at a site other than the uterus endeomentrium
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how do pregnancy tests work?
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all work by detecting the presecene of choriotic gonadotropin in the womens blood or urine
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describe the major birth control methods and identify how they work
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1. rythym method
2. birth control pills contain: estrogens=the estrogens feed back neg on the pituitary thereby shutting off FSH without FSH, no developmental 'race" and no secondary ooctye 2. progesterone=the progesterone feeds back neg on the pit. and shuts of LH without LH no ovulation no formation of corpus luteum and no stimulation of production of progesterone by corpus luteum |
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what are the sensory receptors of the skin? whats their function and where are they found?
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epidermis+dermis=free nerve ending=pain
all of these are found in the dermis: 2.merkles discs=sense of touch 3.pacinian capsules=sense of touch 4.meissners capsules=sense of touch 5.endbulbs of krause=cold 6. endbulbs of ruffini=hot 7. hair plexus=bug detector |
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what are the four tastes?
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salty, sweet, sour, bitter
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how do sense of taste and smell go relate?
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senses of taste and smell go hand in hand when eating, the odor of food reaches your nostrils from air, and also reaches olfactory by mving past soft palate from pharynx
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what are the functions of rods and cones? where are they found?
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rods=black and white vision=found in peripheral field work well in low, medium and high brightness
cones=color vision=in fovea only work well in bright light |
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what is myopia and what causes it?
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=nearsighted=see up close well but cannot see distant objects
-results from eyeball being too long |
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what is hypermetropia and what casues it?
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=farsighted see distant objects well but cannot see up close
-results from the eyeball being too short |
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what is presbyopia and what casues it?
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=farsighted can see up close but not distant objects
results from lens losing elasticity and cannot change shape fro close work (usually for 40 years and up) |
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what is the process of hearing?
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1. sound waves enter external ear canal and strike eardrum causing it to move in and out
2. movement of eardrums is transmitted to the oval window thrrough the ear ossicles 3. the movement of the oval window casue the tectorial memebrane to vibrate 4. the tectorial membrane vibrates and touches the hair cells the hair cells send a message to the brain=sound |
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what are the two kinds of balance organs in the ear?
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1. statocyst and staolith=static balance=position when not moving. the reference point is gravity
2. semicircular canals=dynamic balance=position while in motion. they do not use gravity but use change in motion to determine position |
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describe the 7 major taxa used in modern classification systems
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1. kingdoms
2. phylum 3. classes 4. order 5. family 6. genus 7. species acronym is kings play cords on fine grass sometimes |
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describe john rays and carolus linneas contributions to the sciences of taxonomy and nomenclature
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john ray= 1st to use word species like we use it today
carrolus linneaus=father of modern classification devised the binomial system of nomenclature |
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distingush between the terms specific epithet and species
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specific epithet=binomial name=scientific name
a species is certain kind of animal |
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describe what is meant by the term diagnostic characteristic
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a feature that is shared by a group of organisms that allows them to be distinguished from a closely related group
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define the term biodiversity
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biodiversity= measure by 3 definitions
1. genetic biodiversity=the numbers of diff genes in a population 2. species biodiversity=number of different species in an area 3. ecosystem biodiversity=number of different ecosystems |
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define the terms, weather and climate and describe the major factors that affect each
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weather=short term changes in temp, humidity etc (daily)
climate=average (at least one year) seasonal fluctuations in temp, humidity and rainfall etc weather and climate are affected by: 1. global air currents=jet stream 2. global water currents=gulf stream 3. chemical compositon of atmosphere a. gasses=greenhouse gasses -co2 -water vapor -methane |
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global warming is casued by?
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-greenhouse gasses
-natural factors a. wobble of the earth b. volcanos c. solar cycle |
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what is a biome and what are the earths major biomes and describe how climate determines where each is found
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biomes=assemblage of life
1. desert biome=if area recieves less than 10 inches of rainfall per year 2. grasslands biome=more than 10 inches of rain=grasses grow but not enough rain to support trees |
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describe the relationship that exists among popuations communities and ecosystems. identify the living and non-living portions of an ecosystem
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population makes up community makes up an ecosystem
-an ecosystem =2 or more communites=living portion=biotic abiotic components=nonliving portion of an ecosystem= oxygen, h2o, soil |
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identify the major trophic levels found in ecosystems. identify the trophic levels that are essential to the operation of ecosystems
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1. producers=green plants
2. 1st order consumers=herbivores 3. 2nd order consumers=animals that eat 1st order consumers=carnivores 4. 3rd order consumers=animals that eat 2nd order consumers=carnivores 5. decomposers=bacteria fungi=operate at all tropphic levels producers and decomposers are essential to the operation of the ecosystem |
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distingiush between a food chain and a food web
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a food chain=linear arrangement of trophic levels-found in simple ecosystems like those at the polar regions=arctic and antartic
food web= ecosystem with many links found in auburn al. |
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describe the fates of energy and matter in an ecosystem
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1. matter=stays in ecosystem and is recycled by decomposers
2. energy=no energy cycles becasue each time energy is converted from one form to another, 90% of the energy is lost so energy travels one-way through the ecosystem |
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describe the factors that determine the size of a population. list the fators that affect birth and death rates
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factors that affect the size of a population are births, deaths, immigration and emmigration
-factors that affect birth and death rates are: 1. biotic potential=characteristics that are favorable for growth a. abiotic factors= adequate light, good soil, rain fall, water b. biotic factors=lack of disease, generalized niche(how an organism makes a living) factors that decrease population= 1. abiotic factors=not enough light for photosythesis, poor soil, drought 2. biotic factors=disease and parasites specialized niches, reproductive failure |
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identify the consequences of a population exceeding its carrying capacity
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if you exceed the carrying capacity of an environment=you destroy environment and the pop will decrease and a new lower carrying capacity will be established
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example of ball and socket joint
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shoulder and hip
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example of immovable joint
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skull bones/sutures
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example of hinge joint
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knee and elbow
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example of gliding joint
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wrist
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example of pivot joint
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neck -atlas
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example of a partially movable joint
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pelvis
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