Biology Exam 3

Front 1

vertebrate body organization

Back 1

levels from simple to complex: cells --> tissues --> organs (composed or 2 or more kinds of tissues) --> organ systems --> organism

Front 2

Division in mammals diaphragm

Back 2

the coelom into the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity

Front 3

homeotic genes

Back 3

control the developmental fate of particular segments or regions of an animal's body; found in all animals

Front 4

vertebrate tissues

Back 4

muscle, nerve, epithelial, connective

Front 5

embryonic germ layer tissues

Back 5

endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm

Front 6

epithelial tissues

Back 6

provide a selectively permeable barrier, protect from dehydration or mechanical damage, provide sensory surfaces, produce glands (invaginated epithelium) that secrete materials

Front 7

epithelial cells

Back 7

squamous: flattened irregular shape and tapered edges; cuboidal: cubed shape, often found in glands; columnar: cylinder shaped shells that contain goblet cells that secrete mucus

simple is a single layer of epithelial cells; stratified is more than one layer of epithelial cells

cover structures and line the walls of body cavities; Rest on basal lamina or basement membrane with a free side (Apical surface); are avascular, therefore relatively thin since they received materials via diffusion from adjacent tissue's blood vessels; simple squamous epithelium allows diffusion through membrane

Front 8

vertebrate glands

Back 8

derived from invaginated epithelium (typically cuboidal); endocrine glands secrete hormones that travel through the bloodstream; exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts onto a free surface

Front 9

epidermis protection

Back 9

provided via keratin (waterproofing protein), stratified squamous; outer layer of dead squamous

Front 10

connective tissue

Back 10

cells embedded in an extracellular (protein fibers plus ground substance including carbohydrates) they produce; all originate from mesoderm germ layer; act to connect, anchor, and support (dense irregular ct produces tough coverings that package organs); includes bone, cartilage, blood, adipose

Front 11

cartilage (chondrocytes: cartilage cells)

Back 11

composed of glycoproteins (chondroitin) and collagen fibers

Front 12

bone

Back 12

a special form of connective tissue; organic extracellular matrix of collagen fibers and salt crystals; serves as a reservoir for calcium and phosphate ions; bone marrow is a site for blood cell formations

Front 13

osteocyte

Back 13

living bone cell found in lacunae within an extracellular matrix hardened with calcium phosphate crystals; communicate with other osteocytes through canaliculi

Front 14

intercellular connections

Back 14

gap junctions found within smooth and cardiac muscle; these connections allow coordinated contractions

Front 15

vertebrate locomotion

Back 15

contraction of skeletal muscles anchored via tendons to bones

Front 16

muscle cells muscle cells

Back 16

muscle cells cells that contract or shorten; unique in relative abundance and organization of actin and myosin fibers contained in myofibrils

Front 17

skeletal muscle

Back 17

multi-nucleated, striated, and voluntary; found connected to bone for locomotion

Front 18

cardiac muscle

Back 18

mono-nucleated, striated, and involuntary; found in heart; contain intercalated disks (gap junctions for direct interconnections)

Front 19

smooth muscle

Back 19

mono-nucleated, unstriated, and involuntary; found surrounding hollow tubes and cavities of organs

Front 20

neurons

Back 20

produce and conduct electrochemical impulses

excitable cells that include cell body (contains nucleus and organelles), dendrites (highly branched extensions that conduct impulses toward the cell body); axon (single cytoplasmic extension that conducts impulses away from cell body)

Front 21

neuroglia

Back 21

do not conduct electrical impulses; support and insulate neurons and eliminate foreign materials in and around neurons;

Front 22

myelin sheath

Back 22

insulating cover formed by glial cells around axons; Schwann cells form myelin in PNS and oligodendrocytes formmyelin in CNS

Front 23

nodes of Ranvier

Back 23

gaps in myelin sheaths, associated with acceleration of impulses

Front 24

homeostasis

Back 24

The ability or tendency of an organism or cell to maintain a relatively constant internal equilibrium by adjusting its physiological processes

Front 25

conformers vs/ regulators

Back 25

conformers maintain same fluid composition as environment (lower energy costs)

regulators maintain internal composition of fluids different from environment at a higher energy cost

Front 26

feed-forward regulation

Back 26

physiological changes that prepares the organism for anticipated changes

Front 27

feedback mechanisms

Back 27

process includes stimulus, sensor, set point, integrating center, effector, response
* Be able to identify examples of each of these descriptors from a system such as those used in lecture.

Consider: Negative feedback minimizes change (often through antagonistic effectors) while positive feedback emphasizes change.

Front 28

body temperature

Back 28

controlled by hypothalamus; a rise in the set point (as in the induction phase of a fever) would trigger muscles contracting causing shivers

Front 29

paracrine regulation

Back 29

release of factors into interstitial fluids by cells that influence the activity of nearby cells

Front 30

hormones

Back 30

a chemical messenger secreted from glands into the blood that can act on both nearby and distant target cells thereby regulating organ systems

Front 31

target cells

Back 31

cells with specific receptors (can be located on the surface or inside cell) that allow interaction of hormones or neurotransmitters

Front 32

body fluid

Back 32

intracellular - inside cells (contains most fluid)

extracellular - outside cells, includes plasma and interstitial fluid

barrier between intracellular and extracellular in plants and animals is plasma membrane

Front 33

solute movement across plasma membrane

Back 33

utilize simple diffusion, ATP-powered active transport, transporters, and facilitated diffusion.

Front 34

diffusion

Back 34

Net movement of substances from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration thru random motion

Consider: With diffusion, form promotes function, so epithelium specialized for diffusion would be thin with a relatively large surface area

Front 35

Facilitated diffusion

Back 35

Carrier protein facilitates solute movement in response to [gradient] thru conformational change

Front 36

osmosis

Back 36

Diffusion of water in response to water [gradient] caused by solute presence; net (free) water movement (via diffusion) across membrane towards a higher solute concentration, therefore, water moves from a region of high water concentration to one of low water concentration, or, water moves into the solution that is hypertonic

Front 37

solution

Back 37

Mixture of solvent and solute

Front 38

isotonic

Back 38

Comparison of two solutions where both have equal [solute], therefore have equal [water]�no concentration gradient for water, so no net movement of water

Front 39

hypertonic

Back 39

In comparison of two solutions with unequal osmotic concentration, the solution with higher solute concentration; free water moves into hypertonic solution

Front 40

hypotonic

Back 40

In comparison of two solutions with unequal osmotic concentration, the solution with lower solute concentration; free water moves out of hypotonic solution

Front 41

hormones

Back 41

-amines
-polypeptide/protein
- glycoproteins
-steroids

Front 42

glycoproteins

Back 42

includes-LH and FSH

Front 43

amines

Back 43

(includes Epi, NE),

Front 44

-polypeptide/protein

Back 44

(chains of amino acids, includes ADH, GH, insulin)

Front 45

steroids

Back 45

lipids derived from cholesterol, includes testosterone, estrogen, thyroid hormones

Front 46

The lipid category of hormones are____________

Back 46

nonpolar

Front 47

nonpolar

Back 47

-both lipophilic and hydrophobic
-can pass through the plasma membrane to interact with receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus.
-regulate gene transcription

Front 48

Did you know

Back 48

non-lipid, hydrophilic/lipophobic hormones react with receptors on the surface of the target cell which then causes second messengers to activate previously inactive enzymes

Front 49

peptide, protein, and amine hormones are _______

Back 49

hydrophilic (water soluble)

Front 50

Steroid and thyroid hormones are _______

Back 50

lipophilic (water hating)

Front 51

hormone level controls

Back 51

-mechanisms can be utilized to control concentrations in the blood
-alter the rate of synthesis and subsequent release of hormone into the blood (through negative and positive feedback)
-alter the rate at which the hormone is removed form the blood
-change the rate at which an enzyme produces the hormone
-change the rate at which the hormone is excreted into the urine

Front 52

hormone action

Back 52

genomic action and second messenger action

Front 53

genomic action

Back 53

-involves lipophilic hormones and their receptors within targets cytoplasm or nucleus where they affect transcription
-takes at least 30 mins

Front 54

second messenger action

Back 54

-involves water-soluble (hydrophilic, lipophobic molecules) hormones and their receptors on the surface of target cell; intracellular mediators act as second messenger within the cell

Front 55

True or False

Hydrophilic hormones are intracellular signals

Back 55

FALSE; they are extracellular signals

Front 56

______ hormones(extracellular signals) are transduced into ____________(second messengers).cAMP activates __________ that activates other enzymes in the cell.

Back 56

1. Hydrophilic
2. intracellular signals
3. protein kinase

Front 57

target cells

Back 57

cell with specific receptor proteins for both neurotransmitters and or hormones; tissue usually responds to # of hormones.

Front 58

what distinguishes target cells?

Back 58

?

Front 59

aspects of neural and endocrine regulation

Back 59

1. secretion of chemical signals by nervous systems and endocrine system
2. target cell has specific receptors for chemical signals
3. must be mechanism to turn off chemicals action
4. interaction of chemical and receptor causes specific changes in target cells activities.

Front 60

hormone interactions

Back 60

1. synergistic
2. permissive effect
3. antagonistic effect
4. agonists
5. additive effect

Front 61

synergistic effect

Back 61

2 hormones work together to produce a greater effect than each individual hormone would achieve

Front 62

permissive effect

Back 62

hormone enhances responsiveness of target cell to 2nd hormone

Front 63

antagonistic effect

Back 63

1 hormone inhibits effect of another

Front 64

agonists

Back 64

-are molecules that bind the receptor and induce all the post receptor events that lead to a biologic effect.
-Typical hormone!

Front 65

Antagonists

Back 65

molecules that bind the receptor and block binding of the agonist, but fail to trigger intracellular signaling events. Hormone antagonists are widely used as drugs

Front 66

additive effect

Back 66

the effect is the sum of two or more hormones

Front 67

how do hormones interact with each other?

Back 67

?

Front 68

___________steroid abuse causes testosterone receptors to be_____________ leading to desensitization also you stop producing your endogenous steroids due to _______ feedback.

Back 68

1. anabolic
2. down-regulated
3. negative

Front 69

hypothalamus

Back 69

a portion of the brain base that regulates autonomic functions and secretes hormones, most of which regulate secretory activity of the pituitary gland

Front 70

what is the role of the hypothalamus?

Back 70

?

Front 71

posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

Back 71

stores and secretes neurohormones (ADH & oxytocin) produced in the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary by neurons axons.

Front 72

____ helps regulate water volume and blood pressure. The consumption of _______ stimulates urination by inhibiting ADH secretion.

________ stimulates the milk-ejection reflex and uterine muscles contractions during ________ and is also related to bonding animals.

Back 72

1. ADH
2. alcohol
3. Oxytocin
4. childbirth

Front 73

releasing or inhibiting hormones

Back 73

hormones released by the hypothalamus, travel thru the portal vein to stimulate or decrease secretion of hormones form the anterior pituitary( gland produces the most hormones)

Front 74

The hormones traget cells found where?

Back 74

?

Front 75

hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system

Back 75

system of capillary bed to capillary bed that links the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary; ensures that blood levels of a specific releasing hormone is locally high to stimulate the pituitary; hypothalamus secretes (into portal system) tropic hormones that are either releasing or inhibiting hormones

Front 76

tropic hormones

Back 76

(releasing or inhibiting) act on target endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary to stimulate or suppress the release of hormones that act on other endocrine glands to stimulate the release of still other hormones.

Front 77

Example of tropic hormones

Back 77

GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) is released by hypothalamus... targets endocrine cells in anterior pituitary to release either LH or FSH which will target the male gonads affecting a release of androgens and the female gonads affecting a release of estrogen or progesterone.

Front 78

ACTH

Back 78

stimulates adrenal cortex to produces its hormones

Front 79

Prolactin

Back 79

stimulates breast development and milk production

Front 80

Growth hormone

Back 80

reaches liver which produces IGF, which then target most tissues, stimulates protein synthesis, increases amino acid uptake by cells, promotes fat metabolism, and if amount is increased during growth years, can cause gigantism

Front 81

FSH

Back 81

(follicle stimulating hormone) -a glycoprotein hormone that has an effect in gamete production in both males and females.

Front 82

what are the functions of LH & FSH, ACTH, Prolcatin, and Growth Hormone?

Back 82

?

Front 83

How does Homeostasis work? Why is it important?

Back 83

?

Front 84

Adrenal glands

Back 84

1. adrenal cortex
2. adrenal medulla

Front 85

adrenal cortex

Back 85

produces cortisol (role in stress response in glucose homeostasis and aspects of immune response) and aldosterone (sodium retention by kidney)

Front 86

adrenal medulla

Back 86

produces epinephrine and norepinephrine (associated with sympathetic nervous systems' fight-or-flight/ short terms stress response; works both as a neurotransmitter and a hormone.

Front 87

what is the adrenal gland's role in the "fight-or-flight" response?

Back 87

?

Front 88

which portion of the adrenal gland in involved is involved in this response?

Back 88

?

Front 89

The cortex produces which two hormones and what are their functions?

Back 89

?

Front 90

Norepinephrine works as what?

Back 90

?

Front 91

Why is adrenaline produced quicker than cortisol during stress response?

Back 91

?

Front 92

pancreas

Back 92

Endocrine region and Exocrine region

Front 93

Endocrine Region

Back 93

Islet of Langerhans... alpha cells secrete glucagon for stimulating glycogen breakdown into glucose, beta cells secrete insulin for stimulating glucose uptake, fat production, and glucose storage as glycogen; (both hormones maintain glucose homeostasis)

Front 94

Exocrine region

Back 94

acinar and duct cells...primarily secrete digestive enzymes and bicarbonate base into gastrointestinal tract

Front 95

What would stimulate the release of insulin and what would stimulate the release glucagon? Think increasing or decreasing blood levels of what?

Back 95

?

Front 96

The _______and ________ can be stimulated to produce hormones primarily by the concentration of certain molecules and ions in the blood, rather than neural control.

Insulin is a _______ that exerts its actions within the target cell only by interacting with ____________receptors (hydrophilic)

Back 96

1. pancreas
2. adrenal
3. hormone
4. cell-surface

Front 97

diabetes

Back 97

Type I: lack of insulin-secreting b cells, usually early onset therefore sometimes called juvenile diabetes

Type II: most prevalent form: low number of insulin receptors and insensitivity to insulin

Front 98

What is the difference between Type I and Type II diabetes?

Back 98

?

Front 99

Thyroid

Back 99

T3 and T4 hormones regulate metabolism, thermogenesis and metamorphosis in some animals also carbohydrate & lipid metabolism and stimulate uptake of calcium into bones (calcitonin)

Front 100

Thyroxin

Back 100

The most active form of thyroid hormone and sets the body's basal metabolic rate; low levels of thyroxin in adults-->hypothyroidism with reduced metabolism and overweight... high levels of thyroxin in adults-->high metabolism and weight loss

-triggers metamorphosis in amphibians

Front 101

Calcium Homeostasis.
What hormones, glands and organs involved?

Back 101

?

Front 102

goiter

Back 102

disease of enlarged thyroid gland resulting from iodine deficiency in diet leading to reduced levels of T3 and T4 in the blood, leading to excessive thyroid-stimulating hormone production

Front 103

What is a goiter?

Back 103

?

Front 104

parathyroid glands

Back 104

PTH produced in response to falling Ca^2 levels of in blood--> osteoclasts dissolve calcium phosphate in bone and stimulates kidneys to reabsorb Ca^2 from the urine

Front 105

PTH stimulates the osteoclasts to do what?

Back 105

?

Front 106

What does vitamin D do in this process?

Back 106

?

Front 107

Where do we get vitamin D?

Back 107

?

Front 108

Calcitonin from the _________ and ______ from the parathyroid work antagonistically to maintain the_______ of calcium ion concentrations in the blood

Back 108

1. thyroid
2. PTH
3. homeostasis

Front 109

Acetylcholine

Back 109

molecule that can act as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone

Front 110

What are the roles of the thymus and pineal gland?

Back 110

?

Front 111

The___________rhythm are cycles of physiological activity that follow a ________pattern.

Back 111

1. circadian
2. 24-hour

Front 112

gonads

Back 112

produce sex steroids; estrogen & progesterone (female) and testosterone (male)

Front 113

True or False

Testosterone induces male secondary sex characteristics and when abused can lead to aggressive behavior

Back 113

True

Front 114

Testosterone in Women

Back 114

women produced testosterone in their adrenal gland

Front 115

paracrine and auto regulators

Back 115

paracrine & autocrine

Front 116

paracrine

Back 116

molecules that are produced within one tissue but regulate a different tissue of the same organ (prostagladins, cytokines, nitric oxide, and growth factors)

Front 117

Autocrine

Back 117

mediate the function of the cells in which they are synthesized.

Front 118

Describe the role of autocrine and paracrine regulators

Back 118

?

Front 119

________participate in regulating almost every organ belonging to the immune system, reproductive system, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, and the urinary system.

Back 119

1. Prostaglandins

Front 120

Which of the following is likely NOT to be a mechanism for controlling hormone levels in the blood?
A. alter the rate of synthesis and subsequent release of hormone in to the blood
B. Change the rate at which hormone an enzyme produces the hormone
C. Modify the structure of the hormone at its point of production so it no longer binds its receptor
D. Alter the rate at which the hormone is removed from the blood.
E. Change the rate at which the hormone is excreted in the urine.

Back 120

?

Front 121

Which of the following is an amine hormone important in the stress response in vertebrates?
A. dopamine
B. melatonin
C. cortisol
D. epinephrine
E. serotonin

Back 121

?

Front 122

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone regulates
A. follicle-stimulating hormone
B. luteinizing hormone
C. steroid production by the gonads
D. both follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones
E. both follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones as well as steroid production by the gonads

Back 122

?

Front 123

Often it is important for health reasons to induce labor(i.e., smooth muscle contractions) in pregnant women. The drugs used for this purpose would most closely resemble
A. arginine vasotocin
B. oxytocin
C. antidiuretic hormone
D. prolactin
E. cortisol

Back 123

?

Front 124

A problem with the action or production________leads to both type I and type II diabetes mellitus
A. glucagon
B. growth hormone
C. thyroid hormone
D. insulin
E. cortisol

Back 124

?

Front 125

heterotrophs

Back 125

herbivore- consume plant material
carnivore-consume other animals
ominvore-cosume both plant and animal

Front 126

digestive system (vertebrates)

Back 126

one way tube with a separate mouth and anus and accessory organs; functions to ingest and digest food, absorb nutrients, and eliminate indigestibles


-activities of cells in different layers of the tubular gastrointestinal tract are regulated by clusters of nerves located in the submucosa called plexuses

Front 127

GI tract

Back 127

mouth with 32 teeth (adults), canines and incisors to cut food, molars and premolars to grind food; 3 pairs of salivary glands; epiglottis prevents food from entering trachea (air passageway) when swallowing; pharynx last area both air and food pass through,esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum, anus

Front 128

True or False

Choking involves food entering trachea instead of esophagus

Back 128

TRUE

Front 129

mechanical digestion

Back 129

can include cutting and grinding of food with teeth and churning and mixing of food thru peristalsis and within stomach

Front 130

process of swallowing

Back 130

elevation of the palate to seal off the nasal cavity; folding of the epiglottis over the trachea; pressure against the pharynx to initiate swallowing; the swallowing center stimulates successive waves of contraction (peristalsis)

Front 131

esophagus

Back 131

muscular tube that passes bolus (moistened mass of chewed food swallowed) to stomach; food moves through rhythmic contractions (peristalsis) of the two layers of smooth muscle; sphincter muscle at entrance of stomach must relax before food can enter stomach; acid reflux results from incomplete closure of the sphincter allowing acid to move into the esophagus

Front 132

What are the layers of the alimentary canal, moving from the inside to outside?

Back 132

mucosa, submucosa (contain plexuses- nerves that regulate activities of GI tract), muscularis, and serous

Front 133

TRUE or FALSE

TRUE or FALSE

The muscularis has two layers of smooth muscle oriented in different direction. One is circular and one is longitudinal. These orientations promote peristalsis (movement of material thru tract) and segmentation (mechanical mixing of material)

Back 133

TRUE

Front 134

Digestion begins

Back 134

salivary amylase begin of starch in the mouth, pepsin begins digestion of protein in the stomach, lipids beings digestion in the small intestines ( duodenum)

Front 135

True or False

Most digestion of all organic molecules is completed in the duodenum (1st 25 cm .) of the small intestines also is the primary site of nutrient absorption in the mammalian digestive system

Back 135

True

Front 136

Control of stomach activities

Back 136

Cephalic phase, Gastric Phase, and Intestinal Phases

Front 137

Cephalic Phase

Back 137

Stimulus (sight, smell, etc) impinges on your PNS (via the hypothalamus), the PNS signals the stomach via the vagus nerve, and your stomach gets going with its secretions. The cephalic phase continues until you actually start swallowing the food.

-30-50% of all gastric secretions occur during the cephalic phase

Front 138

Gastric Phase

Back 138

food enters the stomach, distention causes the stomach to release gastrin, and gastrin works stimulates the gastric glands to secrete more gastric juice. Gastrin and PNS activity together lead to the release of histamine from cells of the stomach; histamine also feeds right back onto the gastric glands to increase their release of gastric juice

Front 139

Intestinal Phases

Back 139

only a teeny bit (around 5%) of all the gastric secretions are due to intestinal phase. After a little while, the stimulation to secrete gastric juices dies down. The decrease in promotion of gastric secretions occurs as the acidic chyme keeps entering the small intestine. This is because the chyme makes the small intestines a nit acidic at first. Also. as material starts accumulating in the small intestines, the small intestines release CCK into the blood. The effect of CCK on the stomach is a decrease in gastric secretion.

Front 140

acid reflux

Back 140

when gastric fluid is able to move past gastroesophageal sphincter (muscle that encircles tubes and acts as a circular valve to control flow) and affect the esophagus (tube used only to transport bolus);referred to as heartburn

Front 141

TRUE or FALSE

Over the counter remedies like Tums or Rolaids lower acidity of stomach flu

Back 141

TRUE

Front 142

Peristalsis

Back 142

Rhythmic contractions in the digestive tract from the pharynx to the anus that mixes and moves the bolus (mouth to stomach) and chyme (stomach to small intestines) thru tract

Front 143

Gastric Glands within Stomach

Back 143

-mucus secreting gland:mucus (protects stomach walls form low pH)
-parietal cells: secrete HCI (produces low pH which helps to denature proteins, activates pepsinogen into pepsin which then begins to hydrolyze protein, and kills microorganisms)
-intrinsic factor:(facilitates vitamin B12 absorption necessary for RBC productions..lack leads to pernicious anemia;
-chief cells: produce pepsinogen, precursor (activated by lowering pH) to pepsin which begins digestion of protein

Front 144

True or False

Secretions in stomach are in yellow

Back 144

FALSE; they are in green

Front 145

The Sequential processes occurring in the stomach are

Back 145

1. The arrival of food into the stomach triggers gastric juice secretions
2. Secretion of HCI lowers pH, activating pepsinogen into pepsin.
3. The acidic chyme moves through the pyloric sphincter to the small intestines. The increasing acidity of the stomach is primarily directed towards the start of protein digestion.

Front 146

TRUE or FALSE

While no nutrients are absorbed across the stomach wall, water, alcohol, and aspirin are.

Back 146

TRUE

Front 147

Gizzards

Back 147

area where food is ground in some animals, such as birds

Front 148

crop

Back 148

where birds store food in a modified portion of the lower esophagus

Front 149

roles of the liver

Back 149

first organ to receive the products of digestion; produces bile, removes excess glucose and converts it into glycogen for storage and subsequent conversion into glucose to be released into blood stream when needed, stores vitamins, destroys old/damaged red blood cells, removes alcohol, toxins, pesticides, and carcinogens form blood

Front 150

TRUE or FALSE

The hepatic portal system connects the liver to the small intestines. The hepatic portal vein carries blood with ingested materials to the liver which screens the blood and then it continues on through the hepatic vein.

Back 150

TRUE

Front 151

Bile

Back 151

produced by liver hepatocyte cells in dilute form, moves to gallbladder where it is stored and concentrated, arrival of fat-rich chyme to duodenumereleased into duodenum where the bile salts act as emulsifier/digester of lipids

Front 152

TRUE or FALSE

After bile emulsifies and lipases hydrolyze fats into triglycerides are combined with proteins in the small intestine to make them into water soluble particles called chylomicrons which are absorbed into lymphatic capillaries

Back 152

TRUE

Front 153

What stimulates the secretions of pepsinogen and HCI from the gastric glands?

Back 153

gastrin secreted by stomach cells (role of stomach is to store food, churn chyme (bolus mixed with gastric fluid), continue digestion, and eliminate bacteria)

Front 154

Secretin

Back 154

a drop in duodenum pH (~pH4_ stimulates release of secretin--> stimulates the release of pancreatic fluid, which contains digestive enzymes and buffers.

Front 155

Rumen

Back 155

1st stomach of ruminants which serves as a fermentation chamber in which bacteria and protozoa degrade cellulose; this allows cows to survive on a diet consisting almost entirely of cellulose

Front 156

Cecum

Back 156

area in horses, rodents, and lagomorphs where microorganisms digest cellulose

Front 157

Coprophagy

Back 157

process in which animals, such as rodents, rabbits, and hares consume their feces to assure complete digestion

Front 158

How are digested fats absorbed?

Back 158

thru lacteals (capillaries) which are part of the lymphatic system and located in villi of the small intestines

Front 159

small intestines absorption

Back 159

8.5 liters of solution out of total 9 liters material passing through; the body reabsorbs as much water as possible, and consume water in our food, because we loose water through sweat, breathing , and urination

Front 160

Pancreas

Back 160

-secretes lipase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, DNase, RNase, bicarbonate (neutralizes acidic chyme) through the pancreatic duct, in an exocrine function

Front 161

Brush order Enzymes include

Back 161

-amino-peptidases: which break down peptides into amino acids
-maltase: which hydrolyses maltose into glucose
-sucrase: which hydrolyses sucrose into glucose and fructose
-lactase: which hydrolyses lactose into glucose and galactose

Front 162

As an exocrine gland, the _________ secretes its products thru the pancreatic duct onto the free surface of the small intestines. As an _________ gland, it secretes its hormones (insulin which triggers glucose uptake by cells and glucagon which trigger conversion of glycogen into glucose) directly into the blood stream.

Back 162

1. pancreas
2. Endocrine

Front 163

Digestive secretions are primarily regulated by _______ and________signals

Back 163

1. nerve
2. hormonal

Front 164

majority of digestion and nutrient absorption

Back 164

chyme (thick soupy acidic liquid) enters small intestines (primarily in first portion: duodenum), pancreas releases enzymes and bicarbonate to complete digestion and accomplish majority of absorption ;undigested food is transported to large intestines.

Front 165

Since absorption of most _______ occurs here in the ______(first portion of small intestines), the surface area of the small intestines is greatly increased is greatly increased thru the structures of circular folds, villi, and microvilli.

In humans, the surface area of the small intestines is~____ sq meters

Back 165

1. nutrients
2. duodenum
3. 300

Front 166

lactose intolerance

Back 166

inability to digest milk sugars leading to gastrointestinal pain when dairy products are consumed

Front 167

epithelial wall of small intestines

Back 167

covered with fingerlike (villi) which are in turn covered in micro-villli

Front 168

glycogenolysis

Back 168

increased secretion of glucagon promotes the breakdown of glycogen

Front 169

gluconeo-genesis

Back 169

process in which amino acids and lactic acid are converted to glucose

Front 170

glycogenolysis

Back 170

increased secretion of glucagon promotes the breakdown of glycogen into glucose

Front 171

BE able to identify which organic molecule is being hydrolyzed and absorbed

Back 171

see 3 pictures

Front 172

large intestines

Back 172

contains 3 segments with no villi; 4% absorption; storage of undigested chyme as it is converted to feces; vitamin K production (via bacteria) and absorption; reabsorption of salts (active transport) and water (thru osmosis) from chyme

Front 173

Many bacteria_______and________ within the large intestine. Feces compacted and passed to rectum Feces exit anus & the external anal sphincter made of striated muscle. Smooth muscle sphincter (involuntary). Striated muscle sphincter (voluntary)

Back 173

1. live
2. reproduce

Front 174

By active transport of salts, water can be ___________ thru osmosis. ___________ is a symptom of decreased water reabsorption.

Back 174

1. reabsorbed
2. Diarrhea

Front 175

required macronutrients

Back 175

fats, carbs, proteins

Front 176

Essential _________ are required substances that an animal cannot manufacture, so they have to be eaten. They include vitamins, amino acids (9), long-chain unsaturated fatty acids, and_________.

Back 176

1. nutrients
2. minerals

Front 177

quickest energy source

Back 177

simple suger, such as glucose

Front 178

obesity

Back 178

can lead to type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease

Front 179

by controlling your weight, you may prevent yourself from developing what?

Back 179

diabetes

Front 180

basal metabolic rate

Back 180

rate at which an animal consumes energy at rest

Front 181

LDL

Back 181

Low Density Lipoproteins : considered to be bad for your health because it transports cholesterol

Front 182

vitamins

Back 182

organic compounds obtained thru diet that are required for metabolic reaction; often form coenzymes and antioxidants

Front 183

Vitamins and essential _______ are similar in that they cannot be __________ and must be ingested.

Back 183

1. amino acids
2. synthesized

Front 184

Minerals

Back 184

Trace amounts of metallic ions that are required as cofactors in reactions

Front 185

Site of Release, Stimulants for Release, Organ Affected, and Effect on Organ for Gastrin?

Back 185

-G cells of the Antrum, duodenum & jejunum
-Antrum distention; vagus nerve impulses triggered by site/smell of food; proteins
-Stomach
-Stimulates HCI secretion & mucosal growth

Front 186

Site of Release, Stimulants for Release, Organ Affected, and Effect on Organ for Secretin (opposes gastrin action)

Back 186

-S cells of the duodenum, jejunum & ileum
-Acidic chyme in duodenum
-Stomach and Pancreas
-Stimulates pepsinogen secretion; decreases gastric motility and stimulates bicarbonate secretion

Front 187

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Back 187

- I cells of the duodenum, jejunum & ileum
-fat or protein-rich chyme in duodenum
-stomach, pancreas, and gallbladder
-Decrease gastric emptying, stimulates secretion of enzymes & bicarbonate, and contracts gallbladder

Front 188

sponges

Back 188

animal phyla without network of nerve cells for gathering information

Front 189

What number of the animal phyla does not have nerve cells?

Back 189

sponges