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123 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Mechanisms that Generate ATP |
1.) Substrate level phosphorylation(not that much made) -enzyme transfers phosphate group from organic substrate to ADP 2.) Oxidative Phosphorylation (bulk of ATP) -Energy is stored as a H+ gradient across a membrane then used to make ATP |
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Glucose Breakdown in Stages (With Oxygen) |
1.)Glycolysis: glucose-->pyruvate (in cytosol) If O2 is available 2.)breakdown of pyruvate (mitochondrion) -formation of acetyl- CoA (in matrix) -citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) (in matrix) 3.)Oxidative Phosphorylation (in mitochondrion) -electron transport chain (in inner membrane) -ATP synthesis (by chemiosmosis) |
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Glucose Breakdown in Stages (Without Oxygen) |
1.)Glycolysis: glucose-->pyruvate (in cytosol)If O2 is available If O2 is not available 4.) Fermentation (in cytosol) -Lactic acid fermentation -alcohol fermentation |
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Cellular Respiration |
-cellular respiration is the oxidation of glucose (or other molecules)and the capture of energy in a useful form -works by shutting electrons in a series of energy releasing reactions -other molecules also feed into the pathway for oxidation (pieces of fatty acids, amino acids) -intermediates are drawn off from the pathway to serve as precursors in biosynthetic reactions |
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Redox reactions |
-including a special kind: the electron transport chainenergy is released during transfers of electrons from one molecule to another -redox reactions: oxidation – reduction reactions oxidation = loss of electrons; reduction = gain of electrons electrons are often transferred in H atoms common electron carriers: NADH, NADPH, FADH2 |
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Chemiosmosis |
Energy is stored as a H+ gradient across a membrane which is then used to synthesize ATP |
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Phosphorylation |
-Including the mechanisms that generate ATP ADP + Pi--> ATP -substrate level phosphorylation: phosphate group is picked up from another organic molecule -oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis -Creates bulk of ATP |
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Citric Acid Cycle |
-takes place in the mitochondrial matrix -completes the oxidative of organic fuel -produces: ATP, NADH, FADH2, CO2 -Every turn of the citric acid cycle releases one acetyl group equivalent as two CO2 |
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Electron Transport |
-built into the inner mitochondrial membrane -electrons donated to the electron transport chain by NADH, FADH2 -electrons lose energy as they are passed along -Energy is used to pump H+ ions against the gradient into the intermembrane space -Represents stored energy (potential energy) -Energy stored as the H+ gradient is used by ATP synthesis to make ATP (2H +2e+ 1/2 O2 --> H2O) |
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Glycolysis |
-harvesting chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate -takes place in the cytosol -starts the oxidation of glucose; 2 ATP, 2 NADH -divided into two phases: the energy investment phase and the energy payoff phase -No O2 is needed, is cytosolic, is universal in life |
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Formation of Acetyl- CoA |
-pyruvate is groomed for this citric acid cycle -pyruvate is transported to the mitochondrial matrix -in the mitochondrian -CO2 is removed from pyruvate (decarboxylation) -NADH is formed -Coenzyme A is attached (formation of Acetyl- CoA) |
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Cellular Respiration Formula |
6O2 + C6H12O6-->ATP energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O (and heat) |
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The Citric Acid Cycle |
-takes place in mitochondrial matrix -completes the oxidation of organic fuel -produces: ATP, NADH, FADH2, CO2 -Every turn of the citric acid cycle releases one acetyl group equivalent as two CO2 ** don't need to memorize all steps but need basic idea and what is produced** |
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Electron Transport |
-built in the inner mitochondrial membrane -electrons donated to chain by NADH and FADH2 -Electrons lose energy as the pass along -Energy is used to pump H+ ions against the gradient into the inter membrane space -The energy stored as the H+ gradient is used by ATP synthase to make ATP |
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Blocking of ATP synthesis |
-is fatal to many organisms -Suffocation- no O2-->e transport stops --> no H+ gradient --> no ATP made -Poisons- same (cyanide) -Uncouplers- no H+ gradient--> no ATP made (DNP- former diet drug) |
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Fermentation |
-Occurs after glycolysis when there is no oxygen -Allows NADH (from glycolysis) to dump its electrons and cycle back to glycolysis as NAD+ (allows glycolysis to keep going) -anaerobic alternative to aerobic respiration |
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Physiology Definition |
-The whole natural history or natural sciences -the study of the function of organisms |
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Anatomy Definition |
-the study of the structure of organisms |
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Tissue (Definition and Categories) |
Integrated group of cells with a common function -Epithelial -Connective -Muscle -Nervous |
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Epithelial Tissue |
-Sheet of tightly packed cell lining organs and cavities -Functions:-barrier (against injury, fluid loss) -exchange surface -absorption and secretion of chemical solutions |
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Types of Epithelial Cells |
shape -simple- single layer -stratified- multiple layers -pseudo stratified- appears stratified but is single number of cell layers -cuboidal (like dice) -columnar (like bricks on end -squamous (flat like tiles) |
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Connective Tissue |
cells and extracellular matrix (to bind and support other tissue) -cells are sparsely populated -matrix- web of fibres embedded in uniform foundation -collagenous fibres: collagen; non elastic -elastic fibres: rubbery quality -reticular fibres:collagen; thin and branched |
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Types of Connective Tissue |
1.)Loose connective tissue (all three types) 2.)Fibrous connective tissue (collagenous fibres) 3.)Adipose Tissue (loose connective tissue) 4.)Cartilage (collagenous fibres in matrix) 5.)bone 6.)blood |
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Muscle Tissue |
-muscle is the most abundant tissue in most animals -function: most fibres contract when stimulated by nerves |
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Types of Muscle Tissue |
Striated -Responsible for voluntary movements (skeletal muscles) Smooth -Lacks in striation (intestine) Cardiac -striated but cells branched |
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Nervous Tissue |
-functions: sense stimuli and transmit signals from one part of the animal to another Cells -Neurons: functional units of nervous tissues, transmits nerve impulses -Glia: support neutrons structurally, metabolically and functionally |
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Organs and Organ Systems |
Organs- specialized centres of body functions composed of several different kinds of tissue Organ System-Group of organs that work together to perform vital body functions |
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Hormones and Nerves |
Hormones -slow acting but lasts a while -limited to cells that have the receptor Nerves -very fast and brief signal -Limited to cells that are connected by specialized junctions to an axon and if the junction is a chemical synapse |
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Bernard |
-regulating the internal environment -19th century French physiologist -first to note relative stability to internal environment -recognized the ability to survive in varying environment depends on ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment |
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Cannon |
-Early 20th century -Coined term "flight or flight response" -homeostasis |
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Osmoregulation |
-management of the body's water content and solute composition -71% of earth surface covered by water -seawater-3.5% salt (sodium and chloride) -freshwater-<0.1 mos/L of salt |
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Isoosmotic |
-with medium -body fluids= same osmotic pressure as medium |
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Osmoconformer |
-animal that does not actively adjust its internal osmolarity because it is isoosmotic with its environment |
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Osmoregulator |
-animal whose body fluid has a different osmolarity than that of the environment - animal that lives in a hypoosmotic environment must dischargeexcess water - animal that lives in a hyperosmotic environment must take inwater -expends energy to control its internal osmolarity |
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Freshwater Animals |
-osmoregulators -gain water by osmosis and food -lose salts by diffusion and in urine -regain salts in food and by active uptake from surroundings -excrete large amounts of dilute urine |
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Regulating the Internal Environment |
Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the internal environment -internal environment of vertebrates- interstitial fluid -homeostasis-the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite internal changing conditions |
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Homeostasis |
-homeo- sameness, stasis- standing still -homeostatic mechanisms maintain internal conditions within a relatively small range of values... not at a constant value - accomplished by complex coordination of processes via chemicaland/or electrical signalling |
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Marine Invertebrates |
-osmoconformers -Total osmolarity= seawater -individual [solute] doesn't equal seawater -conform to osmolarity of ocean but regulate internal ionic composition |
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Marine Vertebrates |
-osmoregulators -lose water by osmosis -gain salt and water by food and drinking seawater -dispose of salt by active transport out of gills and in urine -produce small quantities of urine |
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Stenohaline |
-organisms that cannot tolerate substantial changes in the external osmolarity (stenos=narrow, haline=salt) |
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Euryhaline |
-Organisms that can tolerate substantial changs in the external osmolarity (eurys= wide, broad) |
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Transport Epithelium |
-layer of specialized cells that regulate solute movements -Most important feature: ability to move specific solutes in controlled amounts in particular direction -cells join by tight junctions -in most animals: arranged into tubular networks with extensive |
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Anhydrobiosis |
-life without water -ability to survive in a dormant state when an organisms habitat dries up |
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Osmotic Balance on Land |
-largest problem: desiccation -adaptions that reduce water loss are key to survival on land - water loss reduced by -body coverings -nocturnal habit -drinking and eating moist foods -using metabolic water |
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Nasal Glands |
-in beak of birds -removes excess sodium chloride from blood |
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Desiccation |
-adaptions that reduce water loss water loss reduced by: -body coverings -nocturnal habitat -drinking and eating moist foods -using metabolic water |
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Kangaroo Rat |
-animal lives in cool burrow during daytime -fur for insulation -derives water for seeds -concentrates urine and dehydrates feces -condenses respiratory moisture in nasal passages |
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Homeostatic Systems |
a) sensor (or receptor):the sensor perceives a change and notifies the b) integrator (or control centre):the integrator compares the sensor’s input with an internal setpoint; it then gives orders to the c) effector: the effector brings about a response |
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Negative Feedback |
-most -change in internal environment is counteracted -change in variable--> triggers control mechanisms--> counteract further change |
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Positive Feedback |
-few -change in internal environment is augmented -change in variable-->triggers mechanisms--> amplify change |
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Thermoregulation |
regulation of body temperature -conduction-transfer of energy between objects in direct contact of each other -convection-transfer of heat when air or liquid goes past the body -radiation-anything above absolute zero is going to emit some radiation -evaporation-liquid to gases state |
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Evaporative Cooling |
the property of a liquid whereby the surfacebecomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a loss of highlykinetic molecules to the gaseous state |
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Thermal Strategies |
- combination of behavioral, biochemical, and physiologicalresponses that ensure that body temperature is within anacceptable limit Types-tolerance:body temperature is allowed to change with ambient temperature -regulation: does not change with ambient temp. BOTH HAVE COSTS AND BENEFITS |
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Classification of Thermal Strategies |
based on the source -ectotherm: environment determines body temperature -endotherm: animal generates internal heat to maintain body temperature based on the stability -poikilotherm: variable body temperature -homeotherm: stable body temperature |
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Ectotherms + Endotherms |
-ecto- body temperature close to environmental temperature -endo- use metabolic heat to maintain stable body temperature |
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Costs of Ectothermy |
-inability to physiologically regulate body temperature(regulation is accomplished through behavioral controls) -restricted to geographical regions with appropriate ambienttemperatures -very limited time of high activity/energy bursts -not as good at avoiding predators through ‘flight’ |
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Charles Blagden |
-experiment with walls made with iron -put people, dog and friends into room and made the temperature 121 celsius for one hour. everyone was okay but steak was cooked |
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Benefits of Ectothermy |
-lower metabolic rates -slower, low energy approach to life -require less food and water spend less time foraging -can function with much smaller body masses than endotherms |
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Costs of Endothermy |
-considerable metabolic cost; requiring high metabolic rate - requires consumption of large quantities of food and water lots of time spent foraging - very susceptible to dehydration in hot/dry climates - only small amount of energy budgeted for growth and reproduction - small body size is rare due to surface area constraints on heat loss |
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Benefits of Endothermy |
-can sustain long periods of intense activity -enzymes function optimally in narrow range of body temperatures -can be active at times of day or year that are too cold forectotherms -not limited to geographic areas -more likely to survive weather fluctuations |
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Insulation |
-fur, fats and feathers |
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Vasodilation |
-Increase in the diameter of superficial blood vessels -results in elevated blood flow in the skin -triggered by nerve signals that relax the muscles of the vesselwalls -in endotherms, usually warms skin, increasing the transfer ofbody heat to cool environment -circulatory adaptions |
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Vasoconstriction |
-decrease in the diameter of superficial blood vessels -reduces blood flow and heat transfer -circulatory adaptions |
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Countercurrent Heat Exchanger |
-special arrangement of blood vessels -facilitates heat transfer from arteries to veins -helps trap heat in the body core -important in reducing heat loss in many endotherms 55 |
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Cooling by Evaporation |
-way to lose heat and balance temperature -sweating, panting, mucus secretion |
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Behavioural Responses |
-to help maintain internal body temperature -change in posture -moving around the environment |
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Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production |
-endothermis producing heat (heat= metabolic byproduct) -high basal metabolic rate -shivering thermogenesis -non shivering thermogenesis -temporary/seasonal endothermy -body size (large size helps retain metabolic heat) |
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High Basal Metabolic Rate |
production of large amounts of metabolic heat that replace the flow of heat to the environment |
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Shivering thermogenesis |
↑ muscle activity = ↑ heat production |
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Non-shivering Thermogenesis |
-↑ metabolic rate, e.g. due to hormonal changes -↑ mitochondrial activity produce heat instead of ATP - brown fat specialized for rapid heat production |
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Feedback Mechanisms in Thermoregulation in Mammals |
-neurons in the hypothalamus function as a thermostat -sensory cells (e.g. warm and cold receptors in the skin)signal the hypothalamus when temperatures increase ordecrease -the hypothalamus responds by activating or inhibitingappropriate mechanisms |
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Bioenergetics of Animals |
-animals are heterotrophs that harvest chemical energy from the food they eat -ingest energy will be either -used to do work, stored, excreted, or released as heat -heat produced by metabolism-used for doing work or used for maintaining body temperature |
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Metabolic Rate |
-amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time; sum ofall the energy-requiring biochemical reactions occurringover a given time interval -can be measured by monitoring an animal’s rate of • heat loss • oxygen consumption • carbon dioxide production |
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Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) |
-stable rate of energy metabolism measured in mammalsand birds under conditions of minimum environmental andphysiological stress (i.e. at rest with no temperature stressand after fasting) |
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Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR) |
- a measure that is similar to BMR but used for an animalwith varying body temperature that is maintained at aselected body temperature -in other words: an animal’s resting and fasting metabolism at a given bodytemperature |
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Influences on Metabolic Rate |
-size - internal work (chemical, osmotic, electrical, and mechanical) - external work (for locomotion and communication) - tissue growth and repair - time of day, season -age, sex, stress, type of food being metabolized |
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Acclimatization |
-adjustment to changing temperatures -production of stress-induced proteins, e.g. heat-shock proteins -in birds and mammals: adjusting the amount of insulation and varying the capacity for metabolic heat production -in ectotherms: adjustments at the cellular level and production of cryoprotectants |
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Torpor |
physiological state in which activity islow and metabolism decreases (maybe no food or water available) |
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Hibernation |
long-term torpor, evolved as an adaptationto winter cold and food scarcity, e.g. squirrel, bear |
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Estivation |
summer torpor, also characterized by slowmetabolism and inactivity, e.g. some amphibians, fish,invertebrates |
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Daily Torpor |
Hummingbird -body temperature drops by about 10 degrees |
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Frozen Wood Frog |
-sugar is pushed through the circulatory system used as an antifreeze -when animal touches an ice crystal the freezing begins -is an ectotherm |
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Open Vs. Closed Circulatory System |
most invertebrates have open -fluid isn't called blood but "hemolymph" -tubular heart and pores few invertebrates have closed -fluid is known as blood -small branch vessels in each organ -multiple hearts (axillary hearts) |
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Vertebrate Circulatory System |
-Single circuit-fish -Double circuit (only single ventricle)- amphibians -Double circuit (4 separate ventricles)-mammals and birds -Double circuit (2 ventricles and a right systemic aorta)- reptiles except birds SLIDE 21** |
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Mammalian Circulation |
-separate pulmonary and systemic circuits -pressure differences possible |
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Cardiac Output |
heart rate x stroke value human- 70 beats/min mouse-500 beats/min |
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Systole and Diastole |
Systole -heart muscle contracts chambers pump blood Diastole -heart muscle is relaxed and chambers fill with blood -between beats |
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Cardiac Cycle |
inherent activity ofthe heart; can be modified byoutside influences 1.)signals from SA node spread through atria 2.) signals are delayed at AV node 3.)bundle branches pass signals to heart apex 4.)signals spread through ventricles *SA node is the pacemaking node* |
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Blood Vessels |
vein and artery from outside to inside -connective tissue, smooth muscle, endothelium -atrial goes from artery, venule goes to vein Capillary -basal lamina, endothelium -single layer of cells |
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Blood Pressure and Blood Flow |
Velocity varies inversely with totalcross-sectional area of vessels Blood pressure systolic pressure – ventricles contracting diastolic pressure – ventricles relaxing force of the heartbeat falls almost tozero in veins, venules |
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Measurement of Blood Pressure |
-recorded as two numbers; the first number is the systolic pressure, thesecond the diastolic pressure -in healthy resting human: 120 mm Hg at systole and 70 mm Hg atdiastole |
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Regulation of Blood Flow |
-blood volume -blood flow is directed to active tissue -control mechanisms -relaxing/ contracting of pre capillary sphincters -constriction/dilation of arterials -transfer from capillary to cell is NEVER DIRECT. always goes through interstitial fluid |
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Lymphatic System Functions |
Fluid balance -there is a net leakage of fluid and proteins from blood capillaries -lymph capillaries collect lost fluid and return it to blood circulation defence- lymph nodes have defense cells -lymph capillaries pick up fats absorbed by the small intestine,transfer it to blood |
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The Lymphatic System |
movement - one-way valves, contraction of skeletal muscles lymph does not circulate in a closed circuit -thymus -tonsils – handle infections in the mouth -spleen |
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Spleen Functions |
-defence -red blood cell destruction -blood reservoir |
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Thymus |
–the site of maturation of T lymphocytes (of the immune system) |
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Blood Composition and Volume |
-cellular elements -plasma: blood minus the cells (55% of cell) Volume -heart rate (70 beats/min at rest) x stroke volume (75mL) --> 5.25 L/min -Hematocrit- packed cell volume -normal value is 45% regulated -departures are adaptive or pathological |
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Substances Transported by Blood |
-hormones -nutrients -waste products -respiratory gases (not nearly as much as the others) |
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Types of Blood Cells |
White blood cells (Leukocytes) -basophilis, lymphocytes, eosinophilis, monocytes, neutrophilis Platelets (only fragments of cells) Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) |
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Aesculapius |
-(roman) god of the healing art |
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Erythrocytes Shape |
-biconcave dick (oval in camels) -small size (mammals: 5-10 μm) -large surface area |
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Erythrocyte Contents |
-hemoglobin -spectrin- predominant component of the membrane skeleton -glycolytic enzymes- active carbohydrate metabolism (anaerobic) -carbonic anhydrase-catalyzes CO2->bicarbonate -no organelles or ribosomes -mammals- no nucleus--> more space for hemoglobin |
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Formation of Erythrocytes (erythropoiesis) |
Process -4 days- from stem cell to erythrocyte -begins in bone marrow, completed in circulating blood -Initiated when not enough O2 reaches tissues Rate -100 million cells per minute -balanced with destruction of erythrocytes |
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Human Red Blood Cells (RBC's) |
-5-6 million RBCs / mm3 -biconcave shape -lack nucleus -lack mitochondria -life time of 120 days -manufactured in red marrow of certain bones -age or damaged cells phagocytosed bywhite blood cells in spleen and liver |
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Destruction of Erythrocytes |
-Break apart in capillaries due to mechanical stress -eaten by macrophages (defensive phagocytes) in spleen and liver |
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Severe Blood Loss |
-blood pressure decreases causing decrease in blood flow from the damaged area -constriction of blood vessels causing decrease in blood flow -coagulation (clotting) Can be stopped by: platelet plugs (early) or fibrin clots (later) |
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Blood Loss Process |
-endothelium of vessel in damaged exposing connective tissue; platelets adhere -platelets form a plug -seal is reinforced by a clot fibrin FACTORS -platelets -damaged cells -plasma (factors include calcium and vitamin K) |
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Platelets |
-small short lived fragments of a cell -2-3 μm; 50.000 - 300.000/mm3 -do not respond to undamaged endothelial wall Activated by- exposed collagen fibres in damaged tissue of vessel wall -‘foreign’ surfaces and thrombin Upon activation- form of platelet plug - release of clotting factors and change shape |
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Platelets Contain |
-actin and myosin, to help them contract -chemicals that help the coagulation process to begin -chemicals that attract other platelets -chemicals that stimulate blood vessel repair -chemicals that stabilize a blood clot |
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Blood Clot Formation Stage 1 |
Sensing of damage tissue damage (endothelium); exposure to foreign substance --> exposure to collagen clotting factors: -released from platelets and injured tissue -plasma proteins synthesized in liver, circulate in inactive form |
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Blood Clot Formation Stage 2 |
Thrombin Activation -thrombin: enzyme, absent from circulating blood -prothrombin circulates in plasma -activation of blood factor -->prothrombin → thrombin - thrombin --> fibrinogen → fibrin |
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Blood Clot Formation Stage 3 |
Clot Formation -platelets -release substance that cause contraction of blood vessels -sticky platelets form plug -initiate formation of fibrin clot - fibrinogen: soluble protein in plasma - fibrin: insoluble, fibrous protein -clot seals wound until vessel wall heals |
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Clotting Dynamics |
-opposing clotting: anticlotting agents, e.g. heparin - favouring clotting: activated platelets, activated blood factors,thrombin, fibrin |
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Clot Dissolution (fibrinolysis) |
-plasmin• main enzyme of fibrinolysis • cleaves fibrin in multiple locations • acts to dissolve a fibrin clot • produced in inactive form (plasminogen) in the liver -plasminogen• cannot cleave fibrin, but has an affinity for it • incorporated into the clot when it is formed -clot lysis: complex process involving proteolytic enzymes,activators and inhibitors of plasmin and other proteases 27 |
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Sensations |
-triggered by sensory stimuli -travel to brain in action potentials (APs) via sensory pathways |
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Nervous System Functions |
-rapid communication -information processing -sensory input -integration -motor output |
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Afferent and Efferent |
afferent neurons- from periphery to the central nervous system efferent neurone-from CNS to the periphery |
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Problem: conversion of stimulus into a neuronal signal |
-transduction -amplification -sensory adaptation -transmission |
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Problem: encoding information about stimulus |
type of stimulus- type of activated receptor intensity • number of activated receptors • frequency of action potentials location • location of activated receptors • timing of receptor activation (for sound and smell) duration- pattern of action potentials |
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Problem: interpretation of information |
-process and integrate sensory information, starting in the sensory pathways and culminating in the brain -hierarchical and parallel process of information -different parts of the brain process different perceptions -incorporation of information from different modalities inhigher association centres |
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Receptor Types |
-chemoreceptors -mechanoreceptors -thermoreceptors -nociceptors -electromagnetic receptors |
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Sensory Reception by Hair Cells |
-spontaneously active -direction of bending of hairs conveys information -normal bend of hair- most neurotransmitters -straight hair- fewer neurotransmitters -opposite bend of hair- least neurotransmitters |
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Perception |
-ability to discriminate various aspects of the stimulus -meaningful interpretation of sensory data |
