Bio Final Review

Front 1

_______amino acids tend to be found folded inside a protein, whereas _______ amino acids interact with water on the outside of the protein.

Back 1

hydrophobic; hydrophillic

Front 2

what determines a protein's function?

Back 2

-sequence of amino acids

-the 3-dimensional shape of the folded protein

-the location of its gene on the chromosome

Front 3

what determines how protein's fold?

Back 3

a. the interaction of the shared core structure of all the amino acids in the protein

b. the interaction of the side chains of each individual amino acid

c. the interaction of the amino acids with water in the proteins environment

Front 4

describe amino acid side chains

Back 4

They provide unique functions to a folded protein

They allow for the correct folding of proteins.

Front 5

Heating a protein can cause it to denature, or unfold. What do you think would happen to the function of a protein in a denatured state?

Back 5

The protein would not be functional because the three-dimensional shape dictates protein's function.

Front 6

What controls the timing of gene expression?

Back 6

the regulatory sequence for a gene

Front 7

_______ on mRNA interact with _______ on tRNA to allow the _______ to connect amino acids in the correct order during translation.

Back 7

Codons; anticodons; ribosome

Front 8

State two ways in which a person can be deficient in antithrombin activity.

Back 8

a mutation in the regulatory region of a gene

a mutation in the coding region of a gene

Front 9

Which of the following parts of translation will be disrupted by a mutation in the coding region of a gene?

Back 9

the codon of the mRNA

Front 10

how do the redundant properties of the genetic code protect humans from some mutations?

Back 10

Some mutations will not change the amino acid coded by the mRNA codon.

Front 11

Why is recombinant protein production in the milk of transgenic animals an efficient strategy?

Back 11

a. because milk is secreted, so the protein can be obtained non invasively

b. because milk is produced in relatively large quantities

c. because mammary glands naturally secrete large quantities of proteins into milk

d. because milk is easier to obtain than other secretions (e.g., urine, sweat, and saliva)

Front 12

In an antithrombin-producing transgenic goat,

Back 12

the antithrombin gene construct is present in every cell and expressed only in mammary cells.

Front 13

How did scientists alter the gene for antithrombin so that it could be isolated from milk?

Back 13

They attached the regulatory sequence of the goat antithrombin gene to the human coding sequence of antithrombin.

Front 14

Melanin is a pigment expressed in skin cells; melanin gives skin its color. If you wanted to express a different gene in skin cells, which part of the melanin gene would you use and why?

Back 14

The melanin regulatory region would allow for the specific expression of a different gene in the skin.

Front 15

Why are biotechnology companies eager to design genetically modified organisms to express therapeutic proteins, particularly ones that would otherwise have to be isolated from blood products (e.g., human antithrombin) or animal organs (e.g., insulin, originally isolated from pig pancreas)?

Back 15

Biotechnology companies want to produce therapeutic proteins in the most cost-effective way.

There are safety concerns when using proteins from different species or isolating proteins from humans.

It is difficult to collect enough of some low-abundance proteins.

Front 16

What is a genetically modified organism?

Back 16

any modified organism that produces a product it does not normally make

Front 17

Type 1 diabetes results from a loss of insulin production from the pancreas. People with diabetes take recombinant human insulin expressed in bacteria. How would you cure the disease instead of treating it?

Back 17

Replacing the defective insulin gene in a patient through gene therapy would allow for a cure.

Front 18

simple diffusion?

Back 18

movement of small ions from high to low through the membrane

they require NOTHING (no ion channels, no energy)

ex: carbon dioxide, oxygen

(so small fatty acid tails don't know they're there)

Front 19

Active transport?

Back 19

protein channels that REQUIRE energy to allow substances through them.

Normally they need the energy to pump ions from area of low concentration to high concentration.

(ex: walking up slide requires more energy then going down)

Front 20

the general path of how a protein is made and processed out of the cell

Back 20

ribosomes make it

Rough ER processes it

golgi packages it and then sends it away

Front 21

hypothesis

Back 21

a testable theory that could be right or wrong

Front 22

the chemical properties of water

Back 22

partially positive hydrogen

partially negative oxygen

Front 23

what evidence to prove these organelles under went endosymbiosis

Back 23

similarity between bacteria & the chloroplasts & mitochondria of eukaryotes

-size

-inner membrane systems, enzymes, electron transport systems

-reproduction resembles binary fission

-circular DNA

Front 24

name 3 organelles of a plant cell and function

Back 24

plant wall: structure and protection

chloroplast: site of photosynthesis

vacuole: storage

Front 25

chromosome

Back 25

a single, large molecule found in the nucleus of all cells ~ i think

Front 26

When is PCR a useful technique?

Back 26

when limited sample of DNA

Front 27

An individual's STR may vary from the same STR of another individual by:

Back 27

the number of times a specific sequence is reppeated

Front 28

what does gel electrophoresis do

Back 28

it analyzes DNA samples (separates DNA fragments by size)

Front 29

hypertonic

hypotonic

isotonic

what are they?

what do they do to the cell?

Back 29

hyper-lots of solute; water goes out; cell shrinks

hypo-low solute; water goes in; cell bursts

(plants will be turgid)

iso-equal solute; no net movement of water; nothing happens to the cell

Front 30

summarize theory of endosymbiosis using specific organelles as examples

Back 30

there is compelling evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once primitive bacterial cells

similarity between bacteria & the chloroplasts & mitochondria of eukaryotes

Front 31

what can pass through the cell with greater ease, oxygen or glucose?

Back 31

oxygen

bc it doesn't have a charge. glucose has lots of charges that the fatty acids don't like

Front 32

name 3 organelles of a animal cell and describe their function

Back 32

mitochondria: provides energy

endoplasmic reticulum: where proteins are made and packaged

nucleus: where hereditary info stored

Front 33

what are carbohydrates? what are their monomers and polymers?

Back 33

sugar

monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide

Front 34

what organelle does photosynthesis occur in?

what subunits within that organelle are responsible for capturing light and CO2?

Back 34

chloroplasts

-Thylakoids

---embedded in stroma

---disk-shaped membranous sacs

---this is where light is captured

stroma

-fluid inside chloroplast

---this is where CO2 is captured and processed

sugar produced

Front 35

what are short tandem repeats and how can we use them to identify an individual?

Back 35

sections of a chromosome in which DNA sequences are repeated

-STRs are in the same places along chromosomes

-exact length of STR varies from person to person

using PCR methods to screen: diff individuals have diff DNA banding patterns

Front 36

what is an ideal pH?

how does it effect the activity of the enzyme

Back 36

pH where an enzyme is most active

can affect the binding of an enzyme with its substrate

Pepsins ideal pH: 2

Front 37

what happens when there isn't enough oxygen available for cellular respiration?

what builds up in our muscles?

what other products can be generated?

Back 37

Fermentation

lactic acid

alcohol

Front 38

proto-oncogenes

what do normal ones do?

when they are mutated?

Back 38

-they promote cell division and cell differentiation, in response to appropriate signals

-mutated: can become permanently turned on, or activated stimulating cells to divide all the time (oncogenes-genes that cause cancer)

ex: Her2 (breast cancer)

Front 39

tumor suppressor genes

what do normal ones do?

when they are mutated?

Back 39

normally pause cell division, repair damaged DNA, and initiate apoptosis

-cause cancer when inactivated by mutation

ex: BRCA 1 & 2 (code for proteins that help the cell progress normally through cell cycle and respond to DNA damage

Front 40

interphase

Back 40

preporatory stage of cell cycle; prepares for cell division

3 subphases: G1, S, G2

Front 41

Sub Phases of Interphase

Back 41

G1: cell grows larger; begins to produce more cytoplasm and organelles

S: DNA replicates and chromosomes duplicated

G2: when cell ready to enter cell division phases

Front 42

Mitosis

Back 42

the segregation and separation of duplicated chromosomes during cell division

(chromosomes are evenly divided between two daughter cells)

4 phases (PMAT)

Front 43

Prophase

Back 43

replicated chromosomes begin to coil up

the nuclear membrane begins to disassemble

microtubule fibers begin to form the mitotic spindle

Front 44

Metaphase

Back 44

microtubule spindle fibers from opposite ends of the cell attach to the sister chromatids of each chromosome

replicated chromosomes become aligned along the middle of the cell

(mitotic spindle forms)

Front 45

Anaphase

Back 45

microtubules shorten

sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of cell

Front 46

Telophase& cytokinesis

Back 46

Identical sets of chromosomes reach each pole

microtubule spindle fibers disassemble

nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, forming the daughter cell nuclei

(Cytokinesis-cytoplasm and nuclei divide into 2 daughter cells)

Front 47

epidemiology

Back 47

the study of patterns of disease in populations, including risk factors

Front 48

science

Back 48

the process of using observations and experiments to draw conclusions based on evidence

Front 49

covalent bond

Back 49

sharing of pair of electrons between two atoms

this forms molecules

Front 50

organic molecules

Back 50

backbone of interconnected carbon atoms and at least one carbon attached to the hydrogen atom

ex of simple organic molecule: glucose (C6 H12 O6)

Front 51

inorganic molecules

Back 51

lack a carbon based backbone and C-H bond

ex: CO2

Front 52

4 types of organic molecules that make up living things:

Back 52

carbohydrates

lipids

proteins

nucleic acids

(macromolecules)

Front 53

cell

Back 53

basic structural unit of living organisms

Front 54

cohesion vs adhesion

Back 54

cohesion: water molecules sticking to water molecules through hydrogen bonding

adhesion: water molecules sticking to other surfaces through hydrogen bonding

Front 55

ionic bond

Back 55

a strong electrical attraction between oppositely charged ions formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another

(ion-electrically charged atom)

Front 56

carrier

Back 56

An individual who is heterozygous for a particular gene of interest, and therefore can pass on the recessive allele without showing any of its effects.

Front 57

independent assortment

Back 57

The principle that alleles of different genes are distributed independently of one another during meiosis.

Front 58

embryo

Back 58

An early stage of development reached when a zygote undergoes cell division to form a multicellular structure.

Front 59

recombination

Back 59

An event in meiosis during which maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and physically exchange DNA segments.

Front 60

amniocentesis

Back 60

A procedure that removes fluid surrounding the fetus to obtain and analyze fetal cells to diagnose genetic disorders.

Front 61

multifactorial inheritance

Back 61

An interaction between genes and the environment that contributes to a phenotype or trait.

Front 62

autosomes

Back 62

Paired chromosomes present in both males and females; all chromosomes except the X and Y chromosomes.

Front 63

nondisjunction

Back 63

The failure of chromosomes to separate accurately during cell division; nondisjunction in meiosis leads to aneuploid gametes.

Front 64

continuous variation

Back 64

Variation in a population showing an unbroken range of phenotypes rather than discrete categories.

Front 65

pedigree

Back 65

A visual representation of the occurrence of phenotypes across generations.

Front 66

incomplete dominance

Back 66

A form of inheritance in which heterozygotes have a phenotype that is intermediate between homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive. (pink rose)

Front 67

ANEUPLOIDY

Back 67

An abnormal number of one or more chromosomes (either extra or missing copies).

Front 68

co-dominance

Back 68

A form of inheritance in which both alleles contribute equally to the phenotype. (fur-black and brown)

Front 69

gonads

Back 69

sex organs

Front 70

polygenic traits

Back 70

A trait whose phenotype is determined by the interaction among alleles of more than one gene.

Front 71

aerobic respiration

Back 71

A series of reactions that occurs in the presence of oxygen and converts energy stored in foodinto ATP.

Front 72

3 stages of aerobic respiration

Back 72

Glycolysis

Citric Acid Cycle

Electron Transport

Front 73

Glycolysis

Back 73

breaks down food molecules into smaller molecules in cytoplasm

then these molecules enter mitochondria

converts some energy into a small # of ATP molecules

Front 74

Citric Acid Cycle

Back 74

series of reactions-high energy electrons stripped from the bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms

carried to inner membrane of mitochondria by NADH molecules

during this, small amount of ATP is made

Front 75

Electron Transport

Back 75

as high energy electrons are passed from NADH down a chain of molecules in mitochondrial membrane, they power a series of reactions that channel energy into the formation of many ATP molecules

(takes place in mitochondria)

Front 76

fermentation

Back 76

takes place in absence of oxygen and in the cytoplasm

converts some of the energy stored in food into ATP

-produces far less than aerobic respiration

Front 77

anticodon

Back 77

The part of a tRNA molecule that binds to a complementary mRNA codon.

Front 78

regulatory sequence

Back 78

determine when, where, and how much protein a gene makes

(on/off switch)

Front 79

ribosome

Back 79

A complex of RNA and proteins that carries out protein synthesis in all cells.

Front 80

coding sequence

Back 80

The part of a gene that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein. Coding sequences determine the identity, shape, and function of proteins.

(identity)

-specify order(sequence) of amino acids

Front 81

gene

Back 81

the sequence of DNA that contains the info to make at least one protein

Front 82

genetic code

Back 82

The set of rules relating particular mRNA codons to particular amino acids.

Front 83

genetically modified organism (GMO)

Back 83

An organism that has been genetically altered by humans.

Front 84

RNA Polymerase

Back 84

The enzyme that carries out transcription. RNA polymerase copies a strand of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA.

Front 85

Transcription

Back 85

The first stage of gene expression, during which cells produce molecules of messenger RNA (mRNA) from the instructions encoded within genes in DNA.

occurs in nucleus (eukary) and cytoplasm (prokary)

Front 86

transfer RNA (tRNA)

Back 86

A type of RNA that transports amino acids to the ribosome during translation.

Front 87

translation

Back 87

The second stage of gene expression, during which mRNA sequences are used to assemble the corresponding amino acids to make a protein.

occurs on ribosomes (in cytoplasm and rough ER)

Front 88

messenger RNA (mRNA)

Back 88

carries DNA gene info to ribosome

Front 89

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Back 89

component of ribosome (makes protein) -part of the structure

Front 90

gene expression

Back 90

the process of using DNA instructions to make proteins

Front 91

recombinant gene

Back 91

genetically engineered gene

Front 92

gene therapy

Back 92

a treatment that aims to cure human disease by replacing defective genes with functional ones

Front 93

cystic fibrosis

Back 93

autosomal genetic disease

-caused by single cell mutation

-change in nucleotide sequence of DNA

-affects lungs, pancreas, small intestines

-person has it: must have inherited allele from both mom and dad

-caused by recessive allele

Front 94

transport proteins

Back 94

move large or hydrophilic molecules across cell membrane

Front 95

recombination (crossing over)

Back 95

event in meiosis which maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and physically exchange DNA segments

Front 96

Huntington's disease

Back 96

autosomal dominant disorder

-if single huntington's allele is inherited, the individual will have the disease

Front 97

Chaiasma

Back 97

The junction between homologouschromosomes where recombination occurs.

Front 98

Mitosis

Back 98

process that occurs within almost all cells within the body

helps to continue the replication and proliferation of cells

What happens?- DNA is doubled in size, categorized in its respective areas, and cell is divided.

allows for creation of daughter cells with same amount of DNA as parent cell

Front 99

Meiosis

Back 99

-occurs only in gametes

doubles DNA, splits chromosomes randomly into different daughter cells, ends with two new cells with different combo of mother or daughter chromosomes.

next part: DNA split off again w/o any additional replication

--ends with 8 cells w/ only have the desired DNA

Front 100

examples of Aneuploidy

Back 100

Downs Syndrome (extra on 21)

Turner Syndrome (XO)

Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)

XYY syndrome

Front 101

reproduction of eukaryotic cells ischaracterized by three steps

Back 101

1. replication of DNA within the nucleus

2. packagingand segregation of the replicated DNA into two new nuclei (nucleardivision)

3. division ofthe cytoplasm (cytokinesis)