Bio 120 Lab 2

Front 1

solute

Back 1

a substance that is dissolved by a solvent

Front 2

solvent

Back 2

a liquid which dissolves a solute

Front 3

solution

Back 3

solvent + solute

Front 4

passive transport

Back 4

methods of transport that do not require energy input

Front 5

diffusion

Back 5

the movement of cules of a substance from areas of high to low concentration of the substance

Front 6

osmosis

Back 6

the movement of a solvent through selectively permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration

Front 7

isotonic

Back 7

the solute concentrations are the same within the cell and the external environment

Front 8

hypertonic

Back 8

the cell has a higher solute concentration than the environment

(cell is hypertonic) (Cell will burst)

or

the environment has a higher concentration than the cell

(environment is hypertonic)(cell will shrink)

Front 9

hypotonic

Back 9

the cell has a lower solute concentration than the environment

(the cell is hypotonic) (cell will shrink)

or

the environment has a lower concentration than the cell

(the environment is hypotonic) (cell will burst)

Front 10

turgor pressure

Back 10

in plant cells, the net movement of water into the cell causes the central vacuole to push outward.

Front 11

binary fission

Back 11

how prokaryotes replicate

1. circular chromosomes replicate

2. chromosomes separate

3. cytokinesis occurs

Front 12

Cell Division in Eukaryotes

Back 12

Mitosis, interphase, (together form cell cycle) cytokinesis

Front 13

functions of mitosis

Back 13

Production and maintenance of multicellularity, asexual reproduction, and

replacement of old or damaged tissues

Front 14

The Cell Cycle Stepss

Back 14

Interphase

( G1 - growth and production of new organelles

S- DNA Synthesis - Each chromosome produces an exact cop[y-- sister chromatid

centrosomes are also replicated [PLANT CELLS DO NOT HAVE CENTROSOMES]

G2- Growth)

Cell Division- Mitosis

Prophase,

Metaphase,

Anaphase,

Telophase

Cell Division- Cytokinesis

Front 15

Prophase

Back 15

Mitotic spindle begins to form,

nuclear envelope breaks down

replicated chromosomes condense and become visible under the microscope

Front 16

Metaphase

Back 16

Spindle apparatus is completely formed.

Replicated chromosomes line up at the midpoint of the spindle

Microtubules (kinetochores) attach to the centromeres of the replicated chromosomes

Front 17

Anaphase

Back 17

Centromeres of the replicated chromosomes begin to separate, Chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles

Front 18

Telophase

Back 18

In plant cells, a cell plate forms.

in animal cells, a clevage furrow forms

Both of these structures induce cytokinesis

nuclear envelope begins to form around each group of chromosomes

chromosomes arrive at poles and begin to uncoil

Front 19

cytokinesis

Back 19

cytoplasm and organelles are separated into 2 genetically identical daughter cells of approximately the same size

Front 20

Interphase

Back 20

G1- Growth

S- Synthesis of DNA

G2- Growth

Cells spend most of their time in interphase (97%)

Front 21

Unicellularity

Back 21

An organism which has only one cell. Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic. (Ex. Chlamydomonas)

Front 22

Colonial

Back 22

A organism composed of multiple cells, but the cells are all identical and have no specialization

(ex. Gonium)

Front 23

multicellularity

Back 23

An organism composed of multiple cells which divide labour via specialization. Eg. Anabaena

Front 24

Gelatinous Matrix

Back 24

A secretion by organisms with multiple cells, which holds the individual cells together

Front 25

Cytoplasmic Bridge

Back 25

How adjacent cells communicate with one another

Front 26

Ploidy

Back 26

The number of sets of chromosones. Ex. Diploid, Haploid

Front 27

Diploid

Back 27

contains 2 identical sets of chromosones (*homologous). May or may not be replicated

Front 28

Haploid

Back 28

contains 1 sets of chromosones .

May or may not be replicated

Front 29

Homologous chromosome.

Back 29

A chromosome which has an identical pair in shape and size and genes present. NOT REPLICATED. Likely has unique alleles

Front 30

Locus

Back 30

The specific location of a gene on a chromosome. Plural = loci

Front 31

Dominant

Back 31

the particular representation of a gene which is demonstrated even when in the presence of a recessive gene (homo or heterozygous) Represented by a capital letter

Front 32

Recessive

Back 32

A representation of a gene which will be expressed if homozygous recessive but not if heterozygous. Represented by a little letter

Front 33

Genotype

Back 33

An ordered list of the alleles a chromosome carries that are of interest

AAGg

Front 34

End Result of Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2

Back 34

Meiosis 1- Halves the number of chromosomes (Decreases the ploidy from diploid to haploid)

Meiosis 2- Separates the sister chromatids and leaves single chromatids in each of 4 unique daughter cells

Front 35

Prophase 1

Back 35

Diploid cell contains 2n chromosomes.

Chromosomes condense

Nuclear envelope dissintegrates

Spindle microtubules begin to form
Homologous chromosomes pair up to form tetrads (via process of synapsis)

Crossing over may occur

Front 36

Metaphase 1

Back 36

Kinetochores (microtubules) attach to the centrosome of each replicated chromsome

Tetrads line up along the midpoint og the cell

Front 37

Anaphase 1

Back 37

Homologous chromosomes separate from one another and are moved to opposite poles

Front 38

Telophase 1

Back 38

Replicated chromosomes arrive at the poles and begin to uncoil.

Spindle apparatus dissapears

nuclear envelope starts to reform

cytokinesis begins

At the end, you have 2 unique haploid cells

Front 39

Interkinesis 1

Back 39

Cytokinesis occurs and finishes

Cell Grows (G1, G2)

NO DNA REPLICATION

Front 40

Prophase 2

Back 40

Replicated chromosomes recondense

Nuclear envelope dissintegrates

New Spindle forms

Front 41

Metaphase 2

Back 41

Spindle Microtubules attach to the centromeres of replicated chromosome

Replicated chromosomes align along the metaphase plane of the daughter cells

Front 42

Anaphase 2

Back 42

Centromeres of each replicated chromsome separate and the single chromosomes are moved to opposite poles by the spindle apparatus

Front 43

Telophase 2

Back 43

Single chromosomes arrive at poles and start to uncoil. Spindle apparatus dissapears, nuclear envelope reforms

nucleolus beomes visible

cytokinesis begins

RESULTS IN 4 GENETICALLY UNIQUE HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS

Front 44

Plant Meiosis (Lillium Anthers)

Back 44

Meiosis occurs in the sporocytes (diploid cells within reproductive organs (sporangia) within the stamen) in plants. This turns the diploid sporocytes into haploid spores.

1 anther = 4 male sporangia = which contain many many sporocytes which produce 4 haploid spores each via meiosis

Front 45

Chive Preparation (allium tuberosum)

Back 45

Choose 1 or 2 buds and place them near the centre. DO NOT USE YELLOW BUDS

Remove the stalk with a razor blade

Add Aceto-Orcein Stain

Chop plant material with razor

Drag plant material across slide

Place cover slip

LOOK FOR CELLS WITH THICK GLASSY WALLS

Front 46

Alternation of Generations Lifecycle

Back 46

Often found in plants

Have distinct diploid and haploid stages.

Haploid generation produces gametes == called gametophyte

Diploid generation produces spores == Sporophyte (where meiosis occurs to produce haploid spores)

Most plants are sporophyte dominant

Front 47

Sporophyte

Back 47

The diploid generation of a plant. Produces haploid spores via meiosis

Front 48

Gametophyte

Back 48

The haploid generation of a plant. Produces haploid gametes

Front 49

Rhizome

Back 49

A horizontal underground stem which bears roots

Front 50

Sorus (pl. sori)

Back 50

brown spots which grow on the bottom of fern leAves. Made of a cluster or reproductive sporangia. Inside sporangia, diploid sporocytes undergo meiosis to produces haploid spores.

Front 51

Alternation of generations (Fern Specific Stages)

Back 51

DIPLOID GENERATION

1. Diploid zygote formed from union f 2 haploid gametes

2. zygote grows on top of haploid gametophyte into a young sporophyte, which grows into a fern

3. Fern grows sporangia in sori underneath leaves

4. cells in sporangia undergo meiosis and produce spores.

HAPLOID GENERATION

1. haploid spores are released from diploid sporangium

2. spores germinate and develop into a young gametophyte which grows rhizoids

3. gametophyte is fully developed. (also called PROTHALLUS)

4. gametophyte producesreproductive organs, antheridium, (Develops into sperm), and archaegonium (develops into egg)

5. sperm fertilizes egg and develops into a diploid gamete

Front 52

sorus prep

Back 52

Scrape several sporangia into a drop of glycerine on a slide

Front 53

Label sporangium, sporangial stalk, spores

Back 53

Front 54

Chiasma

Back 54

The crossing over point between 2 homologous chromosomes.

Front 55

Mouse Life cycle

-- diploid dominant, but alternation

Back 55

DIPLOID

1. DIploid zygote forms from the union of egg and sperm

2. zygote undergoes mitosis to grow into an embryo, then a juvenile, then an adult

3. adult mice produce egg or sperm in ovary or testis.

HAPLOID

1. haploid egg and sperm are released and joined together as a diploid zygote

Front 56

Gregor Mendel

Back 56

Austrian monk. 1866 he published papre about mendellian genetics. 2 laws

Front 57

Mendel's 1st Law

Back 57

The alleles of one gene segregate from one another during the formation of gametes

PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION

Front 58

Mendel's 2nd law

Back 58

Alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Front 59

gene`

Back 59

factor of inheritance for a particular gene or characteristic

Front 60

alleles

Back 60

the particular variant of the gene

(ex. BROWN eyes, B)

Front 61

heterozygous

Back 61

Has a copy of both alleles of a gene

AaHh

Front 62

homozygous

Back 62

same allele of gene. AA aa

Front 63

phenotype

Back 63

physical appearance of an organism stated in words

Front 64

frequency

Back 64

proportion of one thing happening. \

total to 1

separated by a comma

0.75 brown, 0.25 blue

Front 65

ratio

Back 65

proportion of one thing to another with the lowest set to 1

separated by a colon

1 purple: 5 turquoise

Front 66

punnet square

Back 66

a diagram used to simulate the combination of male and female gametes to form 2x diploid gametes

Front 67

monohybrid cross

Back 67

a cross between two parents to create an F1 generation, where the two parents differ with respect to one phenotypic aspect

ex. flower colour

PPx pp

F1= 1 Pp

F2 = 1PP:2Pp: 1PP

Front 68

Dihybrid Cross

Back 68

a cross between two organisms which differ in 2 phenotypic aspects.

ex. tall, blue x short, yellow

TTBBx ttbb

F1= 1 TtBb

F2= 9 PB, 3 Pb, 3pB, 1pb

Front 69

Test Cross

Back 69

To determine if a plant is heterozygous or homozygous, cross it with a homozygous recessive plant.

Pl pl

pl Ppll ppll

It can also be used to determine gene linkage.

If no linkage, then ratio of gametes will be 1:1:1:1

if linkage, then 1:1

Front 70

Recombinant gametes

Back 70

Some gametes are parental -- If P1 = AABB and P2= aabb, then AB and ab are parental gametes

However, in the F1 there will be some combination of recombinant gametes formed by crossing over. In this example, they would be Ab and aB. You can determine map units from recombinant frequencyq

Front 71

Sex CHromosomes / Sex Linked

Back 71

Related to the X or Y chromosomes

Front 72

Autosomal

Back 72

Related to any chromosome but x or 4

Front 73

karyotype

Back 73

The number and appearance of all the chromosomes of a particular organism. Different for different organisms

Front 74

Turner Syndrome

Back 74

Karyotype shows 1 X chromosome- No 2X no Y

Always female

Phenotypic abnormalities-

Shrot and webbed neck

low ears and hairline

short

swollen hands and feet

no periods, breasts, or children

Front 75

Trisomy 21/ Down Syndrome

Back 75

Karyotype shows 3 copies of chromosome 21.

Phenotypic abnormalities

Physical growth delay

distinct facial features

mild to moderate intellectual disability

Front 76

Kleinefelter's Syndrome

Back 76

Karyotype shows XXY for sex chromosomes

Only Men

Prevents normal testicular development,

delay or incomplete puberty

gynecomastia

;ess hair

infertile

learning disorders

delayed speach and language ability

Front 77

dominant phenotypes

Back 77

Not always the most common.

widow;'s peak

unattached earlobes

freckles

left thumb on top of interlaced fingers

cannot hyperextend thumb

bent little finger\

right hand visible arm cross

PTC Taster

Front 78

carriers

Back 78

females who are heterozygous for a sex linked trait

Front 79

Pedigree Charts

Back 79

Because forced human breeding is not ok, we study historical examples of a trait in a family. ex. haemophilia in royal family. written like a family tree. square = male, circle, = female, coloured in = affected, partially coloured in = carrier

Front 80

dermatoglyphics

Back 80

the study of the patterns and number of fingerprints

3 main patterns- arch, loop, whorl

TRC = total ridge count

Front 81

percentage recombination

Back 81

total number of recombinants / *100

total number of offspring

= % recombination

or # of map units apart.

therefore, high number means further apart

if over 50 map units, genes are not linked

Front 82

Biotechnology

Back 82

The use of organisms or their components to make or modify products useful to humans

"Modern Biotechnology" = involves DNA

Front 83

DNA

Back 83

large, negatively charged, double stranded molecule

composed of a series of nucleotides.

nucleotides have 3 parts

- nitrogenous base (ATCG)

-sugar (deoxyribose)

- phosphate group (negatively charged)

the 2 strands are joined together by covalent phosphodiester bonds

H bonds form between complementary nitrogenous bases

Front 84

Biological Samples

Back 84

Must contain nucleated cells

-body fluids, hair with follicle, skin, organ, bones

Process:

1. DNA extraction from sample.

2. PCR

3. Restriction fragment analysis

Front 85

DNA extraction

Back 85

use isotonic sports drink and swish around.

put in test tube

add cell lysis solution (detergent)

mix gently

add ethanol on top and allow dna to ppt into et hanol

Front 86

Polymerase CHain Reaction (PCR)

Back 86

Requires 4 ingredients-

-DNA extract,

-4 types of deoxyribonucelic triphosphates (dNTPs) (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP)

-Primers

-DNA Polymerase

Combined and placed in a thermal cycler.

1. DNA Denaturation (95deg) Separates the 2 strands

2. Anneal Primers (55deg) cool so primers can bind

3. Extend Primers/DNA synthesis (78 deg)

EACH CYCLE DOUBLES THE AMOUNT OF DNA

Front 87

Restriction fragment analysis

Back 87

an ndirect comparison between nucleotide sequences. Cuts at instance of certain fragment (ex. CGGT) and different people's DNA will be different lengths between the instances of this code. Multiple sequences add accuracy

1. Restriction digest of PCR

cuts DNA into specific fragments

2. Gel electrophoresis

separates fragments according to size via an electrified gel and dyed

Gel's Ladder contains fragments of known size for distance reference

Front 88

Applications of biotechnology

Back 88

forensics, paternity testing, genetic testing, cloning

Front 89

recombinant DNA

Back 89

used to create GMOs/ transgenic organisms . DNA is cut by restriction fragment, then new DNA is ligated in, and then all bound together by polymerase